$12> 


G-KAMMAE 


CONTAINING    THE 


ETYMOLOGY  AND   SYNTAX 


OF 


THE  ENGLISH  LANGUAGE. 


FOR  ADVANCED  GRAMMAR  GRADES,  AND  FOR  HIGH  SCHOOLS, 
ACADEMIES,  ETC. 


Br  WILLIAM  SWINTON, 

AUTHOR  OF  "HARPER'S  LANGUAGE  SERIES,"  "BIBLE  \VORD-BOOK,"  ETC. 


NEW  YORK: 

HARPER  &  BROTHERS,  PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN     SQUARE. 

1878. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1877,  by 

HARPER    &    BROTHERS, 
In  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


PREFACE. 


THIS  text-book  of  English  Grammar  forms  the  advanced  manual  of 
Harper's  "  New  Language  Series,"  and  is  designed  for  study  in  con- 
nection with  the  author's  New  School  Composition.*  In  a  graded 
course  on  the  English  language  it  is  intended  to  fill  the  place  of  the 
book  known  as  the  Progressive  Grammar.  That,  in  such  a  course, 
it  will  fill  that  place  in  a  manner  more  satisfactory  than  the  work 
just  named  may  reasonably  be  hoped  from  the  considerations  ad- 
duced in  the  following  paragraphs. 

At  the  time  when  the  Progressive  Grammar  was  first  published 
/1 872),  it  had  become  a  conviction  in  the  minds  of  many  thought- 
ful teachers  and  others  that  English  grammar,  as  set  forth  in  books 
and  taught  in  schools,  was  failing  to  accomplish  its  avowed  end, 
namely,  "  to  teach  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing  the  English 
language  with  propriety."  The  Progressive  Grammar  was  an  at- 
tempt to  break  loose  from  the  shackles  of  purely  technical  grammar 
— to  strip  it  of  fruitless  formalism,  and  to  introduce  the  constructive 
element.  It  may  be  remarked  that  the  author's  views  did  not  then 
extend  beyond  that  one  book.  Soon  after,  however,  the  experience 
of  the  school-room  led  the  author  to  believe — as  a  like  experience 
was  leading  many  others  to  believe — that  a  method  of  language- 

*  Both  treatises  may  be  had  bound  in  one  volume,  under  the  title  "Swin- 
ton's  English  Grammar  and  Composition." 


IV  PREFACE. 

training  quite  different  from  that  mainly  in  vogue  was  necessary: 
there  arose,  in  fact,  the  thought  of  language  as  one  thing,  and  of 
grammar  as  another  thing ;  and  in  this  view  it  seemed  that  a 
suitable  apparatus  of  elementary  instruction  was  yet  to  be  sup- 
plied. This  conviction  took  shape  in  the  books  known  as  Lain/ 
guagt  Primer,  Language  Lessons,  and  School  Composition. 

In  the  meantime,  contemporaneously  wjth  the  appearance  of 
the  successive  books  of  the  "  Language  Series,"  there  came  about  a 
broadening  and  readjustment  of  the  scheme  of  language-study  in 
the  public  schools.  The  necessity  of  a  progressive  and  graduated 
course  of  training  in  the  mother-tongue,  extending  over  some  years, 
and  beginning  in  practice  and  ending  in  theory,  is  now  generally 
recognized  and  acted  on ;  so  that,  a  considerable  uniformity  in  the 
programme  and  method  of  English  study  being  attained,  it  seems 
possible  to  adapt  our  book-apparatus  to  the  work  to  be  done  in 
our  schools. 

It  is  with  the  view  of  accomplishing  this  purpose  that  a  thorough 
remodelling  of  Harper's  "Language  Series"  has  been  made.  It  is 
thought  that  the  books  now  form  a  closely  connected  series,  embody, 
ing  a  progressive  course  of  development,  the  outline  of  which  may 
be  thus  set  forth : 

1 .  LANGUAGE  PRIMER — mainly  practice. 

2.  NEW  LANGUAGE  LESSONS — theory  and  practice  (i.  e.,  grammar  and 

composition)  in  about  equal  proportion. 

0  (  NEW  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR,       ^  the  two   studies   differentiated, 
°*  \  NEW  SCHOOL  COMPOSITION —  )      but  simultaneously  pursued. 

In  the  remodelled  series,  the  present  text-book  forms  the  Gram- 
mar, pure  and  simple.  It  presupposes  a  certain  amount  of  previ- 
ous training  in  the  theory  and  practice  of  English — presupposes,  at 
least,  the  amount  of  knowledge  obtainable  from  Swinton's  Language 
Lessons,  or  from  a  similar  book ;  and  its  specific  place  in  the  cur- 


PREFACE.  v 

riculum  is  to  be  found  in  the  advanced  grammar  grades  of  our 
public  schools,  though  the  book  is  also  suited  to  the  wants  of 
high  schools  and  academies.  It  is  earnestly  recommended  that  the 
Grammar  be  taken  in  connection  with  the  School  Composition, — 
the  author's  ideal  of  the  distribution  of  study  being:  three  gram- 
mar lessons  and  two  composition  lessons  per  week. 

The  method  and  the  matter  of  the  book  are  both  so  obvious  that 
teachers  will  discover  its  scope  and  character  by  simply  turning  over 
the  leaves :  hence  no  detailed  exhibit  of  the  plan  seems  to  be  called 
for  here.  The  author  would  state  in  a  single  sentence  that  his  aim 
has  been  to  set  forth,  in  the  light  of  the  latest  linguistic  scholarship, 
the  etymology  and  the  syntax  of  the  English  language — to  make 
a  logical,  systematic,  and  well-ordered  presentation  of  this  great 
subject,  with  a  view  both  to  intellectual  development,  or  wit-sharp 
ening,  and  to  the  attainment  of  a  fair  mastery  of  the  art  of  speaking 
and  writing  our  tongue.  Very  great  care  has  been  taken  to  make  it 
a  working  class-book ;  and  particular  attention  is  called  to  the  sum- 
maries, topical  analyses,  and  written  reviews.  For  the  higher  study 
of  English,  in  its  historical  and  comparative  aspects,  a  good  amount 
of  material  will  be  found  in  the  Appendix,  pages  237-252. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  text-book  the  author  has  handled 
several  hundred  English  grammars,  all  of  which  have  been  sug- 
gestive in  one  way  or  other.  He  must,  however,  acknowledge  his 
Indebtedness  throughout  to  the  great  German  works  of  Maetzner 
and  of  Koch,  and  to  the  English  grammars  of  Morris,  Ernest 
Adams,  Bain,  Mulligan,  and  Mason.  It  will  perhaps  not  be  amiss 
to  credit  to  these  storehouses  all  that  is  best  in  the  material  of 
this  text-book ;  its  architecture  the  author  claims  as  his  own. 

WILLIAM  SWINTON. 
NEW  YORK,  August,  1877. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 1 

SECTION  I.— ETYMOLOGY 3 

CHAPTER 

I.  CLASSIFICATION  AND  FORMS 3 

II.  THE  NOUN 6 

I.  DEFINITION 0 

II.  CLASSES  OF  NOUNS 7 

III.  GRAMMATICAL  FORMS  OF  THE  NOUN 11 

I.  NUMBER,  11 ;  II.  GENDER,  16;  III.  CASE,  21 ;  IV.  PKUSON,  23. 

III.  THE  PRONOUN 28 

I.  DEFINITION 28 

II.  CLASSIFICATION  AND  INFLECTION , 28 

I.  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS,  28;  II.  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS,  31 ;  III.  IN- 
TERROGATIVE PRONOUNS,  32. 

IV.  THE  ADJECTIVE * 35 

I.  DEFINITION 35 

II.  CLASSIFICATION 35 

I.  LIMITING  ADJECTIVES,  36;  II.  QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES,  40;  III. 
GRAMMATICAL  FOUMS  OF  TJLIE  ADJECTIVE,  41. 

V.  THE  VERB 48 

I.  DEFINITION 48 

II.  CLASSIFICATION 48 

III.  VERBALS 52 

IV.  GRAMMATICAL  FORMS  OF  THE  VERB 53 

I.  VOTOK,  54;  II.  Mooi>,  55;  III.  TENSE,  57;  IV.  MOODS  WITH 
TENSES,  5T;  V.  NUMBER  AND  PERSON,  64;  VI.  CONJUGATION, 
66;  CONJUGATION  OF  TUB  AUXILIARY  VERBS,  67;  PARADIGM  OF 
THE  REGULAR  VERBS,  71 ;  PARADIGM  OF  THE  IRREGULAR  VERBS, 
74 ;  FORMS  OF  CONJUGATION,  75 ;  IRREGULAR  VERBS,  80. 

VI.  THE  ADVERB 85 

DEFINITION,  CLASSES,  AND  INFLECTION 85 

VII.  THE  PREPOSITION 89 

VIII.  THE  CONJUNCTION 93 

THE  INTERJECTION 95 

IX.  USES  AND  PARSING  OF  THE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH 98 

I.  THE  NOUN 98 

II.  THE  PRONOUN 108 

III.  THE  ADJECTIVE 113 

IV.  THE  VERB 118 

V.  THE  ADVERB 123 

VI.  PREPOSITION,  CONJUNCTION,  AND  INTERJECTION 124 

METHOD  OF  ABBREVIATED  PARSING 127 

NOTES  ON  VARIABLE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH , 130 


yiii  CONTENTS, 


CHMl  SECTION   II.— SYNTAX 137 

DEFINITIONS 137 

RULES  OF  SYNTAX 140 

I.  SUBJECTIVE  RELATION 142 

II.  PREDICATIVE  RELATION 145 

III.  ATTRIBUTIVE  RELATION 153 

IV.  COMPLEMENTARY  RELATION 16tf 

V.  ADVERBIAL  RELATION 175 

VI.  REPRESENTATIVE  RELATION 179 

VII.  CONNECTIVE  RELATION 18i' 

VIII.  ABSOLUTE  AND  INDEPENDENT  CONSTRUCTIONS 194 

IX.  SYNTAX  OF  VERBS  AND  VERBALS 197 


SECTION  III— ANALYSIS 204 

I.  DEFINITIONS  AND  PRINCIPLES 201 

I.  THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  ELEMENTS 204 

II.  CLASSES  OF  SENTENCES 209 

III.  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE 212 

IV.  ADJUNCTS  OF  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE 213 

II.  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE 216 

I.  THEORY  OF  THE  SIMPLE  SENTENCE 216 

II.  DIRECTIONS  FOR  ANALYSIS 216 

MODELS  FOR  ORAL  ANALYSIS 218 

MODELS  FOR  WRITTEN  ANALYSIS 220 

III.  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE 223 

I.  THEORY  OF  THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE 223 

II.  DIRECTIONS  FOR  ANALYSIS 225 

MODELS  FOR  ORAL  ANALYSIS 226 

MODELS  FOR  WRITTEN  ANALYSIS 228 

IV.  ANALYSIS  OF  THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE '. 231 

I.  THEORY  OF  THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE 231 

II.  DIRECTIONS  FOR  ANALYSIS 23^ 


APPENDIX 237 

A.  THE  NOUN 237 

I.  NOTES  ON  NUMBER 237 

II.  NOTES  ON  GENDER 238 

III.  NOTES  ON  CASE 239 

B.  THE  PRONOUN 240 

C.  THE  VERB 242 

I.  NOTES  ON  THE  PARADIGM 242 

II.  LIST  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS 244 

III.  NOTES  ON  THE  IRREGULAR  VERBS 250 

IV.  ORIGIN  OF  THE  INFINITIVE  WITH  "  TO  " :.52 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR 


INTRODUCTION. 

1,  Language  is  the  expression  of  thought  by  means  of 
spoken  or  written  words. 

2,  Grammar  is  the  science  that  treats  of  the  principles 
of  language. 

Some  principles  are  common  to  all  languages,  and  these  princi- 
ples form  the  science  of  general  grammar ;  but  as  the  several 
languages  differ  widely,  it  is  necessary  to  have  a  special  gram- 
mar for  each.  Hence  French  grammar,  German  grammar,  Eng- 
lish grammar,  etc. 

3,  English  grammar  is  the  science  that  treats  of  the 
principles  of  the  English  language. 

Its  use,  or  end,  is  to  teach  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing 
the  English  language  correctly. 

(  Explains  the  structure  ) 

As  a  science  <          „         .  V  r^THEORY. 

(        of  the  language        $ 

.    (  Lays  down  rules  for  its  ) 

As  an  art   <      J  v  =PRACTICE. 

(  correct  use  f 

4,  Words  and  Sentences.  —  Language  consists  of  words 
arranged  in  sentences. 

I.  A  word  is  a  significant  sound  or  combination  of  sounds.  It 
may  be  represented  by  a  written  character  or  combination  of 
characters. 

A 


2  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

II.  A  sentence  is  a  combination  of  words  expressing  a  complete 
thought,  and  conveying  an  assertion,  a  question,  a  command, 
or  a  wish :  as,  (1)  He  comes.  (2)  Does  he  come  ?  (3)  Let  him 
come.  (4)  O  that  he  would  come ! 

5,  Divisions  of  Grammar,  —  Language  is  composed  of 
sentences,  and  sentences  are  made  up  of  words  :  hence  arise 
the  two  principal  divisions  of  English  grammar:  namely, 
etymology — treating  of  words  by  themselves ;  and  syntax — 
treating  of  words  combined  in  sentences. 


NOTES. 

I.  The  common  division  of  English  grammar  has  been  into  four 
parts  —  orthography ',  etymology,  syntax,  and  prosody,  the  offices  of  which 
are  usually  thus  defined : 

Orthography  treats  of  letters,  syllables,  separate  words,  and  spelling. 
Etymology  treats  of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  with  their  derivation 

and  modifications. 
Syntax  treats  of  the  relation,  agreement,  government,  and  arrangement 

of  words  in  sentences. 
Prosody  treats  of  punctuation,  utterance,  figures,  and  versification. 

II.  A  strict  analysis  of  language  -  study  considerably  narrows  the 
scope  of  grammar,  by  assigning  to  more  appropriate  places  several  of 
the  kinds  of  knowledge  vaguely  included  in  grammatical  science. 

Thus  orthography  (together  with  "  utterance,"  i.  e.  orthoepy)  forms  the 
subject-matter  of  special  manuals  of  spelling,  and  is  to  be  learned  from 
these  and  from  the  dictionary.  Prosody  is  a  branch  of  rhetoric,  or 
English  composition.  The  derivation  of  words  (historical  etymology) 
does  not  properly  belong  to  grammar,  but  is  to  be  studied  in  text- 
books of  etymology,  or  word-analysis. 

III.  It  thus  appears  that  grammar,  in  its  strict  sense,  is  limited  to 
two  departments  of  language-study ;  namely,  grammatical  etymology, 
or  accidence,  and  syntax — the  former  treating  of  the  classification  and 
grammatical  forms  of  words,  the  latter  treating  of  the  principles  and 
usages  relating  to  the  combination  of  words  in  speech. 


SECTION   I. 

ETYMOLOGY. 


CHAPTEE  I. 
CLASSIFICATION   AND   FORMS. 

6,  Definition, — Etymology  is  that  division  of  grammar 
which  treats  of  the  classification  and  grammatical  forms 
of  words.     (See  §  9.) 

7,  Parts  of  Speech, — Words  are  arranged  in  classes  ac- 
cording to  their  use  in  sentences ;  and  these  classes,  eight 
in  number,  are  called  the  parts  of  speech.     ("  Speech  "= 
language.) 

8,  The  parts  of  speech  are — 

1.  Noun.  r>.  Adverb. 

2.  Pronoun.  6.  Preposition. 

3.  Adjective.  7.  Conjunction. 

4.  Verb.  8.  Interjection. 

9,  A  grammatical  form  is  a  mode  of   denoting  some 
property  belonging  to  a  part  of  speech. 

Thus  number,  a  mode  of  denoting  one  or  more  than  one,  is  a 
grammatical  form  of  the  noun.  (Book — loofa.)  Tense,  a  mode 
of  denoting  time,  is  a  grammatical  form  of  the  verb.  (Walk — 
walkzft. )  Comparison,  a  mode  of  denoting  degrees  of  a  quality 
is  a  grammatical  form  of  the  adjective.  (Long — longer.) 


4  ETYMOLOGY. 

10.  The  grammatical  forms  of  the  parts  of  speech  are  as 
follows : 

1.  Number — a  property  of  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs. 

2.  Gender — a  property  of  nouns  and  pronouns. 

3.  Case — a  property  of  nouns  and  pronouns. 

4.  Person — a  property  of  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs. 

5.  Voice — a  property  of  verbs. 

6.  Mood — a  property  of  verbs. 

7.  Tense — a  property  of  verbs. 

8.  Comparison — a  property  of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

11,  A  grammatical  form  is  variously  denoted:  namely— 

1.  By  inflection,  or  a  change  in  the  ending  of  a  word. 

Thus,  in  boys,  s  is  an  inflection  or  suffix  to  denote  the  grammatical 
form  number.  So  ed  in  walked  is  an  inflection  to  denote  the 
grammatical  form  tense;  and  er  in  longer  is  an  inflection  to 
denote  the  grammatical  form  comparison. 

An  inflected  word  is  one  that  has,  or  may  have,  a  grammatical  suffix.* 

2.  By  radical  change ;  that  is,  by  the  change  of  a  vowel  in  the 
root  word  :f  as,  man,  men  ;  write,  wrote. 

3.  By  an  auxiliary  term ;  that  is,  by  the  use  of  a  separate  help- 
ing word  joined  with  the  word  to  be  modified  in  meaning :  as 
shall  in  "I  shall  love,"  to  denote  the  future  tense ;  more  in  "  more 
fortunate,"  to  denote  the  comparative  degree. 

4.  By  grammatical  relation ;  that  is,  by  a  special  use  of  a  word 
in  a  sentence.    This  frequently  determines  the  grammatical  form 
of  a  word  when  there  is  no  visible  indication  of  its  form. 

Thus  "  boy  "  in  "  The  loy  flies  his  kite  "  is  in  what  is  called  the 
nominative  case, because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  "flies;" 
whereas  in  "  The  dog  bit  the  ~boy  "  it  is  in  the  objective  case,  be- 
cause it  is  the  object  of  the  verb  "  bit." 


*  A  grammatical  suffix  is  to  be  distinguished  from  an  ordinary  suffix ;  that 
is,  a  letter  or  syllable  added  to  the  termination  of  a  word  to  form  a  derivative 
word,  as/wZ  in  helpful,  er  in  teacher.  The  former  merely  changes  the  meaning 
of  the  word  a  little ;  the  latter  makes  an  entirely  new  word. 

t  The  "root,"  or  "root  word,"  is  the  primitive  word— the  word  in  its  sim- 
plest form,  before  any  change  in  it  has  been  made :  thus  man,  as  contrasted 
With  men,  is  a  root  word. 


GRAMMATICAL  FORMS.  5 

12.  Five  of  the  parts  of  speech  have  grammatical  forms: 
namely,  the  noun,  the  pronoun,  the  verb,  the  adjective,  and 
the  adverb. 

The  remaining  three — namely,  the  preposition,  the  con- 
junction, and  the  interjection — have  no  grammatical  forms. 

NOTE   ON  THE  TERM  "GRAMMATICAL  FORM." 

The  expression  grammatical  form  has  been  adopted  in  this  text-book 
as  a  defining  term  of  the  various  properties  or  "  accidents  "  of  words. 
It  has  been  adopted  in  order  to  free  the  study  of  English  grammar 
from  the  inconsistencies  and  contradictions  that  arise  from  the  em- 
ployment of  the  defining  terms  in  common  use.  Nearly  all  grammari- 
ans have  given  definitions  that  confine  number,  gender,  case,  person, 
etc.,  to  inflections,  or  variations  in  the  forms  of  words.  Thus — 

"Numbers  in  grammar  are  modifications  that  distinguish  unity  and  plu- 
rality." 

"Genders  are  modifications  that  distinguish  objects  in  regard  to  sex." 
**  Cases  are  modifications  that  distinguish  the  relations  of  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns to  other  words." 

Such  a  mode  of  defining  is  suitable  in  the  grammar  of  a  highly  inflect- 
ed language — Greek  or  Latin,  for  instance ;  but  it  is  foreign  to  the 
nature  of  the  English  tongue.  English  has  but  few  inflections,  and 
it  resorts  to  other  devices  for  denoting  the  grammatical  peculiarities 
of  words.  Thus,  it  has  but  one  inflection  for  case — nominative  and 
objective  being  distinguished  only  by  grammatical  relation;  yet  all 
grammarians  reckon  three  cases.  It  has  only  one  inflection  for  tense, 
yet  many  tenses,  these  being  formed  by  the  aid  of  auxiliaries.  It 
denotes  gender  but  slightly  by  modifications,  and  mainly  by  the  use 
of  different  words  or  of  prefixes. 

The  expression  grammatical  form  covers  all  the  peculiarities  in  the 
English  mode  of  denoting  the  grammatical  properties  of  words — 
whether  indicated  by  inflection,  by  radical  change,  by  auxiliaries,  or  by 
'mere  use.  It  also  enables  us  to  define  number,  gender,  case,  etc.,  in  a 
manner  really  conformable  to  the  genius  of  our  language.* 

*  An^us,  Handbook  of  the  English  Tongue  ;  Fleming,  English  Language. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER   II. 

THE   NOUN. 
I.  DEFINITION. 

13i  A  noun,*  or  name-word,  is  the  name  of  anything,-} 
existing  or  conceived  by  the  mind.  Thus — 

f  James,  Milton,  Elizabeth names  of  persons. 

8  °   <  Rome.  Boston.  Washington... names  of  places. 
sense.       j 

[  Tree,  river,  thunder names  of  things. 

Subjects  of  (  Whiteness,  wisdom,  purity,.. names  of  attributes  thought  of. 
thought,     j  Reading,  study,  thinking names  of  actions  thought  of. 

14,  The  tests  of  a  noun  are  as  follows : 

1.  A  noun  may  be  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb. 
(See  §§  46,  48.) 

2.  It  is  the  name  of  an  object  or  an  idea,  not,  like  the 
pronoun,  the  representative  of  a  name. 

3.  It  may  (when  the  meaning  permits)  be  inflected  for 
number,  gender,  and  case. 

I.  Noun  logically  defined. — These  tests,  or  defining  marks,  furnish 
the  means  of  arriving  at  the  full  definition  of  the  noun,  which, 
according  to  the  rules  of  defining,  should  run  thus :  A  noun  is  a 
word  which  may  ~be  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb,  which  names 
an  object  or  an  idea,  and  which  may  be  inflected  for  number,  gender, 
and  case. 

II.  Substantive. — Any  word  or  combination  of  words  perform- 
ing the  office  of  a  noun  is  called  a  substantive. 

*  From  French  worn,  Latin  nomen,  a  name — that  by  which  anything  is  known. 

t  The  word  "thing,"  or  "anything,"  used  in  its  widest  sense,  as  above, 
signifies  whatever  we  can  think  about,  and  applies  to  persons  as  well  as  to  in- 
animate objects. 


THE  NOUN.— CLASSES.  7 

II.  CLASSES   OF  NOUNS. 

15,  Divisions, — Nouns  are  divided  into  three  principal 
classes,  namely :  I.  COMMON.     II.  PKOPEK.     III.  ABSTRACT. 

16,  A  common  noun  is  a  general  or  class  name:  as — 

ship,  book,  flower,  gold. 

A  collective  noun  is  a  common  noun  denoting  a  collection  of  in- 
dividuals considered  as  forming  one  whole  or  body :  as — 
army,  congress,  jury. 

17,  A  proper  noun*  is  a  special  or  individual  name: 
as — 

Henry,  Bismarck,  Tlwmas  Jefferson... names  of  individuals. 
Boston,  Chicago,  New  Orleans special  names  o/  certain  cities. 

DISTINCTION. — The  distinction  ordinarily  made  between  a  common 
noun  and  a  proper  noun — to  wit,  that  the  former  is  the  name 
of  many  individuals  or  of  a  class  of  objects,  the  latter  of  a  par- 
ticular person  or  object — is  not  adequate :  because,  for  instance, 
John  Smith  (a  proper  noun)  is  the  name  of  more  individuals 
than  is  Icing  (a  common  noun). 

I.  A  common  noun  is  the  name  an  object  receives  by  reason  of  its 
nature,  as  one  of  a  class,  each  individual  of  which  resembles 
every  other  in  kind.     Thus  the  common  noun  city  is  applicable 
to  a  large  number  of  places,  as  Boston,  Chicago,  New  Orleans,  etc., 
for  the  reason  that  each  resembles  every  other  in  those  charac- 
teristics that  constitute  each  a  "  city." 

A  proper  noun  is  a  special  name  given  to  an  object  (person,  place, 
or  thing)  without  reference  to  its  nature,  in  order  to  distinguish 
it,  not  only  from  things  of  a  different  class,  but  from  individuals 
of  the  same  class.  Thus  the  common  noun  orator  distinguishes 
all  who  do  from  all  wrho  do  not  belong  to  that  class;  but  the 
proper  nouns  Cicero  and  Daniel  Webster  distinguish  the  persons 
so  named  from  all  other  orators. 

II.  A  common  noun  is  significant,  that  is,  it  has  a  meaning,  and 

*  "  Proper"  (Latin  proprius)  means  own,  or  "belonging  to  one's  self. 


8  ETYMOLOGY. 

its  name  tells  us  at  once  what  its  nature  is ;  a  proper  noun  is 
non  -  significant.  Thus,  the  noun  "  river  "  signifies  all  that  is 
meant  by  the  definition  of  river ;  but  Hudson,  as  applied  to  a 
river,  does  not  mean  anything :  it  is  a  mere  name.  And  that  a 
proper  noun  signifies  nothing  as  to  the  nature  of  the  object 
denoted  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  the  name  "Hudson,"  for  ex- 
ample, is  applied  not  only  to  a  river,  but  to  persons  and  to  cities, 
and  might  be  applied  to  mountains,  horses,  etc.,  just  as  well. 
A  common  noun  describes  ;  a  proper  noun  merely  designates. 

18.  An  abstract  noun  is  the  name  of  some  quality  or 

action:  as — 

whiteness,  honesty,  length,  bravery. 

EXPLANATION.— Every  object  possesses  certain  qualities  or  attri- 
butes. Thus  a  star  may  be  bright  and  distant ;  a  horse,  swift  and 
strong ;  a  man,  good  and  wise,  etc.  If  we  think  of  these  qual- 
ities or  attributes  by  themselves,  thus,  as  it  were,  drawing  them 
off  from  the  objects  to  which  they  belong,  the  names  of  the 
attributes  thus  separated  are  abstract  nouns  (Latin  dbstractus, 
drawn  off).  Thus  from  the  adjectives  above  given  are  formed 
the  following  abstract  nouns :  'brightness,  distance,  swiftness, 
strength,  goodness,  wisdom. 


EXERCISE    1. 

Assign  each  noun  to  its  class — common,  proper,  or  abstract : 

1.  The  snow  was  deep  on  the  hills  last  week. 

2.  The  battle  of  Gettysburg  was  fought  in  Pennsylvania. 

3.  Warren  was  noted  for  the  sweetness  of  his  disposition. 

4.  Thanks  to  the  skill,  energy,  and  perseverance  of  a  few  master-minds,  the 

problem  of  girdling  the  earth  is  now  practically  solved. 
6.  A  host  of  Indian  warriors  rushed  across  the  plain. 

6.  The  legislature  meets  in  February. 

7.  Seeing  is  believing. 

8.  France  has  not  seen  such  another  king  as  Henry  the  Fourth.* 

9.  The  Tempest  was  the  last  tragedy  written  by  Shakspeare. 

10.  Milton  is  the  Homer  of  English  literature. 

11.  Many  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp  appeared. 

12.  O  Justice,!  thou  art  fled  to  brutish  beasts ! 

*  Complex  names  like  "  Henry  the  Fourth"  may  be  called  complex  proper 
nouns. 

t  A  common  (or  abstract)  noun  personified  is  called  a  proper  noun. 


THE  NOUN.— NOTES  ON  CLASSIFICATION. 


NOTES  ON  THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  NOUNS. 

The  following  subdivisions  of  the  three  classes  of  nouns  are  given 
for  convenience  of  reference : 

I.  Common  Nouns. 

(1)  General  and  class  names :  as,  book,  hero.     To  this  subdivision 
belong  most  common  nouns.    Every  such  noun  is  applicable  to  all  the 
individuals  of  a  given  kind.     And  every  such  noun  is  significant. 

(2)  General  names  singular:   as,  color,  space,  life,  time.     These  are 
common  nouns,  because  they  are  significant,  but  they  are  not  class- 
names,  and  do  not  in  their  strict  sense  admit  a  plural.     Thus  spaces 
denotes  different  portions  of  space ;  colors,  different  kinds  of  color. 

(3)  Names  of  materials :  as,  earth,  water,  salt.     These  nouns  denote 
an  unbroken  or  continuous  mass,  and  do  not  naturally  admit  a  plural. 
When  we  speak  of  earths,  waters,  we  mean  different  species  of  earth 
or  water,  and  these  words  are  class-names.     Thus  the  same  word  may 
be  both  a  class-name  and  a  name  of  a  material,  taking  a  plural  in  the 
one  case  but  not  in  the  other.     "  The  merchant  sampled  several  teas  " 
[class-name] ;  "The  old  lady  drank  a  cup  of  tea"  [name  of  material]. 

(4)  Collective  nouns :   as,  army,  fleet,  senate.      In  these  many  indi- 
viduals are  spoken  of  as  in  one  mass  or  body,  which  is  then  taken 
as  a  single  object ;  and  a  noun  thus  used  has  in  the  singular  form 
a  singular  verb:  as,  "The  fleet  was  victorious;"   "The  senate  is  to 
meet." 

OBS. — Certain  collective  nouns,  as  clergy,  people,  while  depoting  many 
individuals,  imply  that  the  individuals  act  separately,  not  as  a  body. 
Such  nouns  are  sometimes  called  nouns  of  multitude,  and  they  take 
a  plural  verb:  thus,  "The  clergy  were  opposed  to  the  measure ;" 
"The  people  deeply  feel  the  disgrace." 

(5)  Becoming  pi*oper :   as,  Providence  (applied   to  the  Deity);  the 
President;  the  Queen  of  England.     Such  names,  though  allied  to  com- 
mon nouns  in  being  significant,  resemble  proper  nouns  in  being  ap- 
plicable only  to  a  single  individual  in  the  same  sense.     They  are 
substitutes  for  given  names,  and  may  be  called  proper  nouns. 

A  2 


10  ETYMOLOGY. 

II.  Proper  Nouns. 

(1)  Strictly  proper :  as,  Milton,  Jerusalem,  the  Alps.    These  are  spe- 
cial names  of  persons,  places,  or  things.    Though  strictly  applicable 
only  to  a  single  individual  at  a  time,  a  proper  noun  may  take  a  plural 
form :  as,  the  Miss  Thompsons,  the  Rothschilds. 

(2)  Becoming  common:  as,  a  Milton;  "some  village  Bampden"    In 
this  use  of  proper  nouns  the  design  is  to  denote  a  class  ("  Milton  "  = 
poet;  "Hamp3en^=|?atrk?Q,  and  the  names  are  significant.    Hence 
nouns  thus  used  may  be  called  common  nouns. 

III.  Abstract  Nouns. 

(1)  Abstract  nouns  denoting  attributes:  as,  goodness,  wisdom.    A 
noun  of  this  kind  presupposes  the  existence  of  an  adjective  from 
which  it  is  derived. 

(2)  Verbal  nouns:  as,  "  To  read  is  profitable;"  "Reading  is  profita- 
ble."   In  the  English  language  there  are  two  of  these  verbal  nouns, 
or  verbals,  for  every  verb,  with  the  exception  of  the  auxiliaries  may, 
can,  shall,  will,  must,  etc. ;  namely : 

(a)  The  infinitive,  that  is,  the  verb  in  its  simplest  form,  generally  with 
to  prefixed :  as,  to  read; 

(b)  The  infinitive  in  irc#  (called  the  gerund):  as,  "Reading  is  profitable." 

OBS.— The  peculiar  nature  of  these  verbal  nouns  will  hereafter  be  fully  ex- 
plained (see  §  100).  The  infinitive  in  ing  must  not  be  confounded  with  the  pres- 
ent participle:  as,  "The  boy  is  writing,"  or  uThe  boy,  writing  home,  said,'* 
etc.  When  the  form  in  ing  can  be  substituted  for  the  common  infinitive,  it  is 
a  verbal  noun:  thus,  "Writing  [=to  write]  is  more  difficult  than  reading  [=ta 
read]." 

SUMMARY. 

Class  names "book,  hero. 

Names  singular color,  space. 

Common....      Names  of  material gold,  salt. 

Collective  nouns senate,  army. 

Becoming  proper Providence,  the  Park. 

(  Strictly  proper John  Milton. 

"  (Becoming  common "a  Milton." 


(  Abstract  (from  adjectives) whiteness,  honesty. 

}  TT    ,    ,    (infinitive to  write. 

(Verbals -< 

(verbal  in  ing writing. 


THE  NOUN.— NUMBER.  H 

III.  GRAMMATICAL  FORMS  OF  THE  NOUN. 

19,  Nlftnber  of  Forms. — Nouns  have  four  grammatical 
forms:  I.  NUMBER.    II.  GENDER.    III.  CASE.    IY.  PERSON. 

I.  NUMBER  IN  NOUNS. 

20,  Definition. — Number  is  a  grammatical  form  express- 
ing one  or  more  than  one  of  the  objects  named  by  the  noun. 

21,  The  two  numbers  are,  the  singular  number,  which 
denotes  one :  as,  star,  child /  and  the  plural  number,  which 
denotes  more  than  one :  as,  stars,  children. 

FORMATION   OF   THE   PLURAL. 

22,  There  are  two  modes  of  forming  the  plural  of  nouns : 
namely,  by  inflection  and  by  radical  change. 

Some  nouns  have  no  distinguishing  mark  of  number; 
these  may  be  called  indeterminate  forms. 

1.  By  Inflection. 

23,  General  Eule, — The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  gen- 
erally formed  by  adding  the  inflection  S  or  (where  euphony 
requires)  6S  to  the  singular.* 

24,  The  following  classes  of  nouns  generally  add  es  for 
the  plural : 

1.  Nouns  ending  in  ch  (soft),  s,  sh,  x,  or  z,  and  some 
nouns  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant :  as,  church,  churches  ; 
kiss,  kisses  ;  dish,  dishes  ;  box,  boxes  ;  topaz,  topazes  ;  motto, 
mottoes. 


*  I.  When  the  noun  ends  in  a  sharp  mute  (p,  /,  £,  th  [in  thiri]y  &),  the  s  has 
its  sharp  sound  (in  sea) :  as,  cats,  books. 

II.  When  the  noun  ends  in  &Jlat  mute  (5,  v,  d,  th  [in  the],g),  in  a  liquid  (w,  nt 
I,  r),  or  in  a  vowel,  the  s  has  its  flat  sound  z:  as,  dogs,  hens,  bells. 


12  ETYMOLOGY. 

2.  Nouns  ending  in  y  preceded  by  a  consonant.     Such 
nouns  substitute  i  for  y  before  adding  6S :  as,  story,  stories* 

3.  A  few  Old-English  nouns  that  end  inforfe  ajjd  change 
the/"  or/0  into  v  before  adding  es :  as,  thief,  thieves  ;  wife, 
wives  y  wolf,  wolves  /  life,  lives. 

2.  By  Radical  Change. 

25,  A  few  Old-English  nouns  form  their  plural  by  radi- 
cal change ;  that  is,  by  a  modification  of  the  vowel  sound 
of  the  singular.     These  are — 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

man  men 

woman  women 

foot  feet 

goose  geese 

tooth  teeth 

mouse  mice 

louse  lice 

3.  Indeterminate  Forms. 

26,  A  few  nouns  have  the  same  form  for  the  plural  as 
for  the  singular.     Among  these  are — 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

sheep  sheep 

deer  deer 

grouse  grouse 

salmon  salmon 

heathen  heathen 

In  these  indeterminate  forms  the  number  of  the  noun  is 
to  be  inferred  from  the  context :  thus, "  A  sheep  was  feed- 
ing on  the  hill ;"  "  /Sheep  were  feeding  on  the  hill." 

*  In  words  of  this  class  it  is  more  accurate  to  state  that  ie  has  been  changed 
in  the  singular  into  ?/,  as  the  Old-English  way  of  spelling  the  words  in  the  sin- 
gular was  ladie,  glorie,  etc. ;  so  that  the  modern  plural  is  regularly  formed  from 
the  old  singular. 


THE  NOUN.—  NUMBER. 


PECULIARITIES    OF   NUMBER. 

27,  Double  Plurals,  —  Some  nouns  have  double  plurals, 
each  possessing  a  peculiar  signification  : 


brother brothers  (by  birth) brethren  (of  a  community). 

cloth cloths  (kinds  of  cloth) clothes  (garments). 

die dies  (stamps  for  coining) dice  (for  play). 

genius geniuses  (men  of  talent) genii  (spirits). 

index indexes  (contents) indices  (algebraic  signs). 

pea peas  (single  ones) pease  (collective). 

penny pennies  (coins) pence  (value  or  amount). 

staff. staves  (common  use) staffs  (military  term). 

shot shot  (balls) shots  (number  of  rounds). 

fish fish  (collective) fishes  (individuals). 

28,  Plurals   as   Singulars,  —  Some    plural    forms    aro 
usually  treated  as  singular:  as,  amends,  gallowsrnews,  odds, 
pains,  tidings,  wages,  thanks.     So — 

j  represent  Greek  plurals,  but  are  now  treated 
I  as  singular.  Thus,  "Mathematics  is  an  im- 
f proving  study;"  "Optics  is  the  science  of 

optics light." 

mathematics J 

29,  Plurals  only,  —  Some  nouns,  the  names  of  things 
consisting  of  more  than  one  part  or  forming  a  pair,  have 
only  the  plural  form : 

annals  entrails  scissors 

antipodes  nuptials  shears 

breeches  pantaloons  tongs 

drawers  pincers  victuals 

dregs  Ecales  vitals 

30,  Foreign  Plurals,  —  Many  foreign  nouns,  especially 
those  that  are  imperfectly  naturalized,  retain  their  foreign 


14:  ETYMOLOGY. 

plural.*     (The  plurals  of  such  nouns  are  readily  found  by 
reference  to  a  dictionary.) 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

[  formula  formulae 

(1)  Latin  ........................  \  datum  data 

(  radius  radii 


/ox     n       7  f  axis  axes 

(2)  Greek  .......................  <    , 

(  phenomenon  phenomena 

(  bandit  banditti 

(3)  Italian  ......................  { 

\  virtuoso  virtuosi 

(4)  Sebrew....  ..  j  cherub  cherubim 

(  seraph  seraphim 

31.  Compounds,  —  With  regard  fo  compounds  the  follow- 
ing points  are  to  be  noted  : 

I.  The  plural  of  compound  nouns  is  generally  formed  by  adding 
the  suffix  to  the  principal  noun,  that  is,  to  the  noun  described  : 
as,  fruit-trees,  Z>n?£^rs-in-law,  d^cZs-de-camp. 

II.  When  the  last  part  of  a  compound  is  an  adjective  (according 
to  the  French  idiom)  the  suffix  is  usually  added  to  the  noun  : 
as,  attorneys-general,  onirfc-martial. 

Knights  -Templars  pluralizes  both  parts;  as  do  also  men-servants, 
women-servants. 

III.  When  the  words  are  so  closely  allied  that  the  meaning  is  in- 
complete till  the  whole  is  known,  the  plural  sign  is  added  at 
the  end  :  as,  forget-me-nots. 

*  1.  Many  Latin  nouns  adopted  into  our  language  retain  their  Latin  end- 
ings: 

Nouns  in  us  (masculine)  form  the  plural  in  i;  as,  focus,  foci. 
"       "  us  (neuter)  "        "        "     **   era;  as,  genus,  genera. 

"       "  urn  "        "        "     "    a;  as,  datum,  data. 

"       "a  "        "        "     "    ce;  as,  nebula,  neb  uloe. 

"       "  ex  "        "        "     "   ices;  as,  vortex,  vortices. 

2.  Some  Greek  nouns  adopted  into  our  language  retain  the  Greek  endings 
in  the  plural  :  thus— 

Nouns  in  is  form  the  plural  in  es;  as,  crisis,  crises. 

"       "  on     "      "      -"      "  a;  as,  phenomenon,  phenomena. 


THE  NOUN.  15 

32,  Proper  Nouns, — When  proper  nouns  become  plural 
they  generally  follow  the  analogy  of  common  nouns.  As 
to  those  ending  in  ?/,  usage  is  unsettled ;  some  writers  add  s, 
others  follow  the  rule  for  common  nouns. 


EXERCISE    2. 
A. 

Give  the  plural  of  the  following  nouns  : 

1.  Pen;  desk;  book;  knife;  fox;  ox;  foot;  footman. 

2.  Candle;  map;  cage;  calf;  class;  bat;  sky;  toy. 

3.  Cargo;  church;  monarch;  muff;  tyro;  focus;  basis. 

4.  Story;  dictum;  beau;  potato;  cherub;  log;  nebula. 

5.  Chimney;  automaton;  genus;  proof;  axis. 

6.  Criterion;  child;  woman;  wife;  kiss;  staff. 

B. 

State  the  number ;  and  if  singular  spell  the  plural,  and 
conversely. 

1.  Boy ;  man ;  pennies ;  sugar ;  strap ;  hens ;  shoes ;  fox ;  ewes ;  geese. 

2.  Hens ;  tigress ;  ladies ;  wren ;  dose ;  hose ;  clothes ;  feet ;  tooth ;  ox ; 

vixen ;  cows ;  mouse  ;  cruise ;  crews. 

3.  Oxen;  fish;  children;  a  sheep;  three  deer;  steer;  tax;  boxes;  sorceress. 

4.  Deacons;  deaconess;  cheese;  valleys;  trees;  lees;  grease;  rice;  dice. 

C. 

Write  the  following  sentences,  changing  the  nouns  in  the 
plural  to  nouns  in  the  singular  number : 

1.  Monkeys  are  the  animals  which  most  resemble  men. 

2.  Mice  are  running  across  the  room. 

3.  Sheep  have  woolly  fleece. 

4.  The  appendices  to  these  books  are  short. 

5.  The  hypotheses  will  not  hold  good. 

6.  The  data  proved  to  be  false. 

7.  The  premises  were  true. 

8.  The  radii  of  circles  are  half  their  diameters. 

9.  Nebulae  appeared  in  the  heavens. 

10.  Gipsies  offered  to  tell  us  our  fortunes. 

11.  The  mountains  are  enveloped  in  mists. 

12.  There  are  beautiful  roses  in  our  gardens. 


16  ETYMOLOGY. 

II.  GENDER   ITV  NOUNS. 

33,  Definition, — Gender  is  a  grammatical  form  express- 
ing the  sex  or  non-sex  of  the  object  named  by  a  noun. 

That  is  to  say,  it  is  a  distinction  in  t\\zform  or  in  the  meaning  of 
nouns  (and  pronouns),  by  virtue  of  which  they  stand  respec- 
tively for  objects  of  the  male  sex,  or  of  the  female  sex,  or  for 
objects  without  sex. 

34,  Gender  is  determined  by  sex  or  non-sex,  and  is  of 
three  kinds,  I.  THE  MASCULINE  GENDER.     II.  THE  FEMININE 

GENDEK.   III.  THE  NEUTEE  GENDEE. 

The  name  of  anything  of  the  male  sex  is  called  a  mascu- 
line noun,  or  a  noun  of  the  masculine  gender:  as,  man, 
king,  father. 

The  name  of  anything  of  the  female  sex  is  called  a  fern- 
inine  noun,  or  a  noun  of  the  feminine  gender :  as,  woman, 
queen,  mother. 

The  name  of  anything  without  sex  is  called  a  neuter 
noun,  or  a  noun  of  the  neuter  gender :  as,  stone,  tree,  house. 

35,  Various  grammatical  usages  in  regard  to  gender  may 
here  be  noted : 

I.  A  plural  noun  that  is  known  to  denote  individuals  of  both  sexes 
is  said  to  be  of  common  gender. 

II.  A  singular  noun  which  by  its  meaning  is  indeterminate  in 
gender,  but  which  is  known  to  denote  a  male,  is  of  the  mascu- 
line gender. 

III.  A  singular  noun  which  by  its  meaning  is  indeterminate  in 
gender,  but  which  is  known  to  denote  a  female,  is  of  the  fem- 
inine gender. 

IV.  A  singular  noun  so  used  that  the  context  does  not  denote  the 
sex  of  the  object  is  of  the  masculine  gender. 

V.  In  the  case  of  the  smaller  animals  and  of  young  children  it 
frequently  happens  that  their  names  are  referred  to  by  means 
of  neuter  pronouns :  as, "  The  baby  cried  itself  to  sleep." 


THE  NOUN.— GENDER.  17 

VI.  Things  without  life  are  often  personified  (that  is,  spoken  of  as 
if  they  were  living  beings),  and  in  such  cases  masculine  and 
feminine  pronouns  are  used  in  speaking  of  them  :  thus — 

For  Winter  came:  the  wind  was  7m  whip, 

One  choppy  finger  was  on  his  lip :  • 

He  had  torn  the  cataracts  from  the  hills, 

And  they  clanked  at  his  girdle  like  manacles. 

36,  Its  Use. — The  distinction  of  gender  is  of  small  im- 
portance in  English  grammar,  and  appears  principally  in  the 
employment  of  the  pronouns  he,  she,  it,  and  a  few  words  of 
the  same  class. 

HISTORICAL  NOTE. — In  modern  English,  gender  (based  as  it  is 
solely  on  the  sex  or  non-sex  of  the  object  denoted  by  the  noun) 
differs  widely  from  gender  in  Latin  or  Greek  grammar,  and 
also  from  gender  in  the  Anglo-Saxon  form  of  our  speech.  In 
Latin,  Greek,  and  various  other  languages,  the  gender  of  a  noun 
is  generally  determined,  not  by  the  sex  or  non-sex  of  the  object 
denoted,  but  by  the  class  to  which  the  noun  itself  belongs  accord- 
ing to  its  termination.  Thus  in  Latin,  nouns  in  a  (1st  declension) 
are  feminine :  hence,  penna  (a  pen)  is  feminine.  This  may  be 
called  grammatical  gender  (applicable  only  to  words),  in  contra- 
distinction to  gender  expressive  of  sex  or  non-sex,  which  may 
be  styled  natural  gender. 

37,  How  Marked, — The  distinction  of  gender  in  mascu- 
line and  feminine  nouns  that  stand  for  pairs  of  males  and 
females  is  made  in  three  ways:  (1)  by  the  use  of  distinct 
words  for  the  name  of  the  male  and  of  the  female ;  (2)  by 
an  auxiliary  word ;  (3)  by  the  use  of  suffixes. 

38,  First  Mode, — Quite  different  words  are  used:  as — 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE. 

man  woman 

boy  girl 

husband  wife 

son  daughter 

stag  hind 


18  ETYMOLOGY. 

The  gender  of  such  nouns  can  be  known  only  by  their  meaning ; 
and  to  give  this  does  not  belong  to  grammar 

39,  Second  Mode. — An  auxiliary  word  denoting  sex  is 
joined  with  a  noun  of  indeterminate  gender,  thus  forming 
a  compound  word:  as — 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE. 

man-servant  maid-servant 

he-goat  she-goat 

40,  Third  Mode,— The  feminine  is  denoted  by  an  inflec- 
tion of  gender.     The   commonest  of  these,  and  the  only 
one  by  which  new  feminines  can  still  be  formed,  is  the 
suffix  ess :  as,  murder-er,  murder-ess;  host,  host-ess. 

41,  Inflection  ess, — The  suffix  ess  is  an  inflection  of  the 
feminine  gender,  corresponding  to  the  suffix  er  for  the 
masculine.     The  following  cases  are  to  be  noted : 

I.  When  a  masculine  noun  ends  in  er,  and  the  correspond- 
ing feminine  noun  ends  in  ess,  we  have  what  is  strictly 
termed  grammatical  gender :  as — 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE. 

murder-er  murder-ess 

sorcer-er  sorcer-ess 

II.  But  such  pairs  of  words  are  now  very  rare ;  and  usu- 
ally the  masculine  noun  corresponding  to  a  feminine  noun 
in  ess  has  no  ending  to  mark  gender :  thus — 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE. 

giant  giant-ess 

heir  heir-ess 

poet  poet-ess 

III.  Frequently  the  root  word  undergoes  some  change  of 
spelling  on  taking  the  suffix  ess :  thus — 


THE  NOUN.— GENDER.  19 

MABOTTLINE.  FEMININE. 

actor  actr-ess 

hunter  huntr-ess 

negro  negr-ess 

votary  votar-ess 

I.  The  suffix  er  (Anglo-Saxon  ere  —  man)  is  an  Old-English  in- 
flection of  the  masculine  gender.    The  corresponding  feminine 
inflection  was  ster.    The  suffix  ess  is  a  Norman-French  inflec- 
tion of  the  feminine  gender,  and  in  course  of  time  took  the 
place  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  ster. 

II.  In  earlier  periods  of  our  language,  the  number  of  feininines  in 
ess  was  much  greater  than  at  present ;  thus,  doctress,  waggoness, 
cousiness,  and  many  other  similar  nouns  were  in  use  in  the  time 
of  Shakspeare.    In  our  own  day  a  tendency  to  revive  some  of 
these  feminines,  and  to  form  others  (expressive  especially  of  pro- 
fessions recently  adopted  by  women,  as  doctress,  waitress,  editress, 
etc.),  is  noticeable ;  but  good  taste  in  most  cases  discourages 
such  innovations,  and,  indeed,  obviates  the  need  of  them  by 
treating  terms  like  doctor,  author,  writer,  engraver,  as  applicable 
equally  to  women  and  to  men. 

42,  Foreign  Inflections, — In  some  borrowed  words  we 
have  feminine  endings  of  foreign  origin  :  thus — 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE. 

Latin executor  execu-trix 

Greek hero  hero-ine 

But  it  will  be  observed  that  we  cannot,  as  in  the  case  of  ess,  em- 
ploy these  endings  in  forming  new  feminines. 


EXERCISE    3. 

State  the  gender  of  the  following  words  : 

1.  Cow;  lass;  mistress;  poet;  gander. 

2.  Widower;  aunt;  uncle;  priestess;  goddess. 

3.  Lamb;  horse;  cattle;  hogs;  pigs;  chickens. 

4.  Pauline;  bridegroom;  ship;  sun;  moon. 

5.  Husband;  wife;  steer;  heifer;  gentleman;  lady. 

6.  Moor-hen ;  ink-bottle ;  editor ;  regiment ;  witch. 


20  ETYMOLOGY. 

III.  CASE    IN   NOUNS. 

43,  Definition.  —  Case  is  a  grammatical  form  denoting 
the  relation  of  a  noun  to  some  other  word  in  the  sentence. 

ILLUSTRATION. — In  the  sentence, 

The  general  praised  the  soldier's  bravery, 

"general"  stands  for  the  person  who  did  the  action  denoted  by 
the  verb  "  praised ;"  "  bravery  "  stands  for  that  towards  which  the 
action  (of  praising)  went ;  "  soldier's  "  is  used  to  indicate  whose 
bravery  was  praised.  "  General "  and  "  bravery  "  have  each  a 
certain  relation  to  the  verb  "praised,"  and  "soldier's"  has  a 
certain  relation  to  the  noun  "  bravery." 

44,  Case-forms. — Nouns  in  English  have  only  two  case- 
forms,  exemplified  in  the  words  boy,  botfs;  bird,  bird's ; 
but  as  there  are  at  least  three  distinct  relations  of  the  noun, 
and  as  in  most  pronouns  each  of  these  uses  is  denoted  by  a 
separate  word,  it  is  usual  to  reckon  three  cases  of  nouns. 

45,  The  cases  are: — I.  THE  NOMINATIVE  CASE.     II.  THE 

POSSESSIVE  CASE.       III.  TlIE  OBJECTIVE  CASE. 

46,  The  nominative  case  is  that  form  which  a  noun  has 
when  it  is  the  subject  of  a  verb  :  as,  "  The  boy  grows." 

The  subject  of  a  verb  represents  that  of  which  something  is  as- 
serted. 

47,  The  possessive  case  is  that  form  which  a  noun  has 
in  order  to  denote  ownership  or  possession :  as,  "  The  boy's 
book  is  lost." 

48,  The  objective  case  is  that  use  which  a  noun  has 
when  it  is  the  object  of  a  verb  (or  of  a  preposition).     Nouns 
have  the  same  form  in  the  nominative  and  objective  cases, 
the  case  being  determined  by  the  relation  which  the  noun 
bears  to  the  verb :  as,  "  The  man  struck  the  boy" 


THE  NOUN.-CASE.  21 

The  object  of  a  verb  is  the  name  of  that  on  which  the  action 
spoken  of  by  a  verb  terminates.  It  answers  to  wJwm  or  what 
after  the  verb. 

49.  Kule  for  Possessive, — The  possessive  case  in  the  sin- 
gular number,  and  in  those  plurals  which  do  not  end  in  S 
in  the  nominative,  is  formed  by  suffixing  S  with  an  apostro- 
phe before  it  ('s)  to  the  nominative  case  ^  as,  boy's,  John's, 
men's. 

In  those  plurals  that  end  in  S,  the  possessive  is  formed  by- 
placing  the  apostrophe  alone  after  the  S  :  as,  "  the  boys' 
books,"  "the  birds'  feathers." 


I.  It  was  formerly  customary  to  mark  the  possessive  case  singular 
of  nouns  ending  in  8,  z,  or  ce  by  placing  an  apostrophe  without 
the  s  after  the  word :  as,  "Socrates'  wife,"  "  the  Times'  editorial.'7 
But  this  practice  is  now  nearly  obsolete,  except  in  a  few  special 
cases,  as, "  for  conscience"1  sake ;"  and  it  would  be  well  could  we  at- 
tain the  uniform  method  of  writing  the  possessive  singular  with 
the  's.     It  is  better  to  write  "  Charles's  book"  than  "  Charles' 
book ;"  "  the  goddess's  wrath"  than  "  the  goddess*  wrath."  Wheth- 
er the  suffix  shall  be  pronounced  is  a  matter  of  euphony  or  (in 
verse)  of  metrical  necessity ;  in  writing,  the  suffix  's  belongs  to 
the  possessive  singular  as  a  matter  of  grammatical  justice. 

II.  The  inflection  's  of  the  possessive   singular  represents  the 
Anglo-Saxon  suffix  es,  which  was  used  to  mark  the  possessive 
(or  genitive)  case  singular  of  certain  classes  of  nouns :  as,  nomi- 
native, smith;  genitive,  smithes= smith's,  or  of  a  smith.     The 
apostrophe  denotes  the  elision  of  the  e  in  the  old  es. 

III.  In  compound  or  complex  names  the  sign  of  the  possessive  is 
affixed  to  the  last  word  only ;  as,  "  my  father-in-law's  house," 
"John  Stuart  Mill's  Political  Economy." 

50,  Declension, — A  noun  is  said  to  be  declined  when  we 
name  its  three  cases  in  the  two  numbers;  the  process  of 
doing  so  is  called  declension. 


22 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Declension  of  Nouns. 


BOY. 

MAN. 

SINGULAR. 

PLTTBAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Norn. 

boy 

boys 

Nom. 

man 

men 

Pass. 

boy's 

boys' 

Poss. 

man's 

men's 

Obj. 

boy 

boys 

Obj. 

man 

men 

LADY. 

SHEEP. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

SINGULAR. 

PLURAL. 

Nom. 

lady 

ladies 

Nom. 

sheep 

sheep 

Poss. 

lady's 

ladies' 

Poss. 

sheep's 

sheep's 

Obj. 

lady 

ladies 

Obj. 

sheep 

sheep 

EXERCISE    4. 
A. 

In  the  following  sentences  select  first  the  nouns  in  the 
nominative  case,  and  then  those  in  the  objective  case : 

1.  I  love  John. 

2.  John  loves  me. 

3.  The  boy  likes  play. 

4.  Play  tires  the  boy. 

5.  The  hunters  followed  the  hound. 

6.  The  snow  covered  the  ground. 

7.  John  Milton  wrote  Paradise  Lost. 

8.  Suspicion  haunts  the  guilty  mind. 

9.  Across  his  brow  his  hand  he  drew. 

10.  The  children  coming  home  from  school 
Look  in  at  the  open  door ; 

They  love  to  see  the  flaming  forge, 
And  hear  the  bellows  roar, 
And  catch  the  burning  sparks  that  fly 
Like  chaff  from  a  threshing-floor. 

11.  Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight, 
And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds. 

12.  Large  was  his  bounty,  and  his  soul  sincere ; 
Heaven  did  a  recompense  as  largely  send. 


THE  NOUN.— PERSON.  23 

B. 

Give  the  possessive,  singular  and  plural  (if  any),  of  the  fol- 
lowing nouns : 

1.  Child;  prince;  woman;  king;  cable;  tutor. 

2.  Peril;  mercy;  father;  Henry;  aunt;  cat. 

3.  Charles;  gardener;  brother;  poetess;  author;  painter. 

4.  Sculptor;  engraver;  sister;  Socrates;  princess;  bridge. 

5.  House;  Peter;  righteousness;  ox;  thief;  sheep. 

C. 

Write  the  following — changing  the  italicized  phrases  into 
possessive  nouns : 

1.  A  cap  of  the  boy.  2.  The  mother  of  Moses.  3.  The  dresses  of  the  ladies. 
4.  The  son  of  the  princess.  5.  The  pain-killer  of  Davis.  6.  The  wrath  of  Achilles. 
7.  The  work  of  the  men.  8.  The  wool  of  the  sheep.  9.  The  hat  of  Mr.  Jacob. 
10.  The  house  of  Mr.  Jacobs.  11.  The  store  of  the  Messrs.  Murray.  12.  The 
banking-house  of  Brown  Brothers.  13.  The  houses  of  my  sons-in-law. 


IV.  PERSON  IN  NOUNS. 

51,  Person  in  nouns  is  a  grammatical  form  which  shows 
whether  the  "speaker  is  meant,  the  person  spoken  to,  or  the 
person  or  thing  spoken  of  .* 

Grammatical  person  is  best  understood  by  reference  to  the  per- 
sonal pronouns.     (See  §  56.) 

There  are  three  persons :  the  first,  the  second^  and  the 
third — the  first  denoting  the  speaker,  the  second  the  person 
spoken  to,  the  third  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

52,  How  known, — Person  in  nouns  is  not  marked  by  any 
sign,  being  denoted  wholly  by  grammatical  relation. 

*  The  word  "person'7  has  in  grammar  a  technical  meaning  quite  different 
from  its  ordinary  signification  (namely,  a  rational  being  or  individual).  The 
term  was  borrowed  by  the  old  grammarians  from  the  language  of  the  stage, 
in  which  the  players,  only  three  in  number,  were  called  the  "persons"  of  the 
drama  (dramatis  personce).  From  this  the  word  came  to  mean  the  character 
assumed,  the  part  taken  by  each  performer.  Hence  "person,"  as  a  grammat- 
ical term,  means  a  mode  of  denoting  (by  the  use  of  a  noun  and  by  the  form  of  a 
pronoun)  the  parts  sustained  by  the  several  participants  in  discourse— as  that 
of  the  speaker,  the  person  addressed,  etc. 


24:  ETYMOLOGY* 

I.  A  noun  used  in  connection  with  a  personal  pronoun  of  the  first 
person  is  in  the  first  person :  as,  " I, Paul" 

II.  A  noun  used  in  connection  with  a  personal  pronoun  of  the  sec- 
ond person  is  in  the  second  person :  as,  "  Thou,  God,  seest  me." 

III.  A  noun  that  is  the  name  of  anything  spoken  of  is  in  the  third 
person.    Nouns  are  always  in  the  third  person  except  when  they 
are  in  apposition  (see  page  102)  with  a  pronoun  of  the  first  01 
second  person. 

GENERAL  EEVIEW  OF  NOUNS. 

A. 

TABLE  FOR  BLACKBOARD. 

COMMON. 

Classes ^  PROPER. 

ABSTRACT. 

Singular. 
Plural. 

f  Masculine. 

[  Neuter. 

(  Nominative . 

CASE •?  Possessive. 

(  Objective. 

Inflections U  or  es  =  plural. 

's  ^possessive  case  singular., 


B. 

TOPICAL  ANALYSIS. 
I.  Definition  of  the  Noun. 

1.  TESTS. 

2.  LOGICAL  DEFINITION. 

II.  Classes  of  Nouns. 

1.  COMMON  DEFINED. 

Collective. 

2.  PROPER  DEFINED. 

Distinction  of  proper  and  common. 

3.  ABSTRACT  DEFINED. 


THE  NOUN.— REVIEW.  25 


III.  Grammatical  Forms. 

1.  NUMBER  DEFINED. 

a.  Singular. 
5.  Plural. 

2.  FORMATION  OP  PLURAL. 

a.  By  inflection. 

I.  By  radical  change— examples. 

c.  Indeterminate  forms — examples. 

3.  GENDER  DEFINED. 

a.  How  determined. 
I.  Masculine. 

c.  Feminine. 

d.  Common. 

e.  Neuter. 

4.  MARKS  OF  GENDER. 

a.  By  different  words — examples. 

b.  By  prefixed  words — examples. 

c.  By  inflection — examples. 

5.  CASE  DEFINED. 

a.  Case-forms. 

~b.  Cases — number  of. 

c.  Nominative. 

d.  Possessive — formation  of. 

e.  Objective. 

f.  Declension— examples. 


C. 

WRITTEN  REVIEWS.* 
I. 

1.  State  the  derivation  of  the  word  noun. 

2.  Write  a  sentence  containing  two  nouns,  the  names  of  material 
objects,  and  a  sentence  containing  two  nouns,  the  names  of  objects 
perceived  by  the  mind. 

*  In  these  Written  Reviews  the  questions  have  in  some  cases  reference  to 
matter  in  subordinate  type  or  to  matter  in  the  Notes  (see  Appendix,  page  237). 

B 


26  ETYMOLOGY. 

3.  State  to  which  of  the  following  words  the  three  tests  of  the  noun 
apply  (and  hence  which  are  nouns) :  hero,  heroic,  we,  man,  truly,  who. 

4.  Give  the  three  principal  divisions  of  nouns,  and  illustrate  each 
class  by  an  example  in  a  sentence. 

5.  Write  in  your  own  language  the  chief  distinction  between  a  proper 
noun  and  a  common  noun,  and  apply  the  explanation  to  the  nouns 
river  and  Amazon. 

6.  Give  three  examples  of  an  abstract  noun.    Form  three  from  any 
three  adjectives. 

7.  To  which  class  of  nouns  do  the  words  "  seeing  "  and  "  believing  " 
in  the  sentence  "  Seeing  is  believing"  belong  ? 

8.  The  plural  of  nouns  is  usually  formed  by  adding  s  or  es  to  the 
singular.    Explain  the  following  plurals  which  are  otherwise  formed : 
oxen*  feet,  mice,  children*  strata. 

9.  Write  the  plurals  of  the  following  words :  cow,*knife,  wife,  dwarf, 
staff,  ox,  die,  house,  wealth,  phenomenon,  canto,  lily,  donkey,  stomach,  son- 
in-law,  brigadier-general. 

10.  In  the  following  stanzas  classify  the  nouns : 

Can  storied  urn  or  animated  bust 
Back  to  its  mansion  call  the  fleeting  breath? 

Can  Honor's  voice  provoke  the  silent  dust, 
Or  Flattery  soothe  the  dull,  cold  ear  of  Death  ? 

Some  village  Hampden,  that  with  dauntless  breast 

The  little  tyrant  of  his  fields  withstood, 
Some  mute  inglorious  Milton  here  may  rest, 

Some  Cromwell,  guiltless  of  his  country's  blood. 

II. 

1.  State  the  origin  of  the  plural  suffix  *,  and  illustrate.! 

2.  Write  a  sentence  containing  a  collective  noun. 

3.  State  the  number  of  the  following  nouns :  mathematics,  scissors, 
deer,  alms. 

4.  Write  the  plural  of  Englishman,  Frenchman,  Mussulman,  Ottoman, 
German,  talisman. 

5.  Give  three  nouns  (a)  that  have  no  singular  fonn ;  (&)  that  have 
no  plural  form ;  (c)  that  have  singular  and  plural  alike. 

*  See  "  Notes  on  Number,"  Appendix,  page  237. 
t  Sec  "  Notes  on  Number,"  Appendix,  page  237. 


THE  NOUN.— REVIEW.  27 

6.  Give  the  two  plurals  of  the  following  words,  and  distinguish  be- 
tween the  meanings :  die,  brother,  cloth,  penny, 

7.  How  does  gender  differ  from  sex  ? 

8.  State  the  several  modes  of  forming  the  feminine  of  nouns,  and 
illustrate  by  examples. 

9.  From  what  language  is  the  feminine  suffix  ess  derived  ?     What 
was  the  corresponding  Anglo-Saxon  suffix  ? 

10.  Is  there   anything   etymologically  peculiar  in  the  following 
words  :  songstress,  spinster  ?* 

IIL 

1.  Write  two  masculine  nouns  formed  from  the  feminine,! 

2.  Write  three  nouns  of  common  gender. 

3.  Why  is  there  no  need  of  such  feminine  forms  as  waitress,  editress, 
etc.? 

4.  Write  the  definition  of  case,  name  the  three  cases,  and  illustrate 
by  the  declension  of  a  noun. 

5.  What  is  the  only  c&se-inflection  in  modern  English  ? 

6.  How  do  we  distinguish  between  the  nominative  and  the  possess- 
ive case  ? 

7.  Explain  the  origin  of  ''s  in  sucli  a  word  as  father's.     Will  the 
same  explanation  apply  to  the  plural,  fathers'  ?\ 

8.  Write  the  possessive  case  plural  of  man,  lady,  memy, 

9.  Explain  the  term  objective  case, 

10.  State  the  grammatical  forms  (that  is,  the  number,  gender,  case, 
and  person)  of  "hero""  in  the  sentence  "  The  hero  perished  in  his 
prime,"  giving  the  reason  for  each  form. 

*  Appendix,  page  238,        t  Appendix,  page  238.        J  Appendix,  page  240. 


28  ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAPTER  III. 

THE    PRONOUN. 

I.  DEFINITION. 

53,  A  pronoun*  is  a  word  used  for  a  name  or  instead  of 
a  noun :  as,  "  I  say ;"  "  He  remained ;"  "  Who  is  afraid  ?" 
"  That  is  good." 

I.  A  pronoun  cannot  be  correctly  defined  merely  as  "  a  word  used 
instead  of  a  noun."  This  definition  holds  good  with  reference 
to  some  of  them  only :  it  does  not  apply,  for  instance,  to  the 
personal  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  (/,  you),  which 
can  by  no  means  be  said  to  stand  instead  of  a  noun.f 

II.*  A  pronoun  resembles  a  noun  (1)  in  having  the  grammatical  uses 
of  the  noun ;  and  (2)  in  having,  when  the  meaning  permits, 
grammatical  forms  to  denote  gender,  number,  and  case.  It  differs 
from  a  noun  in  not  being  a  name.  The  noun  describes,  the  pro- 
noun designates  without  describing. 

II.  CLASSIFICATION  AND  INFLECTION. 

54,  Pronouns  are  divided  into  three  classes:  —  I.  PER- 
SONAL.    II.  RELATIVE.     III.  INTERROGATIVE. 

I.  PERSONAL    PROIVOUJVS. 

55,  A  personal  pronoun  is  one  that  marks  grammatical 
person. 

The  personal  pronouns  are :  I,  you  (thou),  he,  she,  it,  with 
their  plurals,  we,  you  (ye),  they. 

Person  has  been  already  defined  under  Nouns  (see  §  51)  as  a  gram- 
matical form  which  shows  whether  the  speaker  is  meant,  the 
person  spoken  to,  or  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

*  Latin  pro,  for,  and  nomen,  a  name,  or  noun, 
t  See  uThe  Pronoun,"  Appendix,  page  2±L 


THE  PRONOUN.  29 

56,  There  are  three  persons:  the  first,  the  second,  and  the 
third. 

A  personal  pronoun  is  of  tlie  first  person  when  it  denotes 
the  speaker,  of  the  second  person  when  it  denotes  the  person 
spoken  to,  and  of  the  third  person  when  it  denotes  the  per- 
son or  thing  spoken  of. 

The  ordinary  definition  above  given  lias  brevity  to  recommend  it ; 
but  a  more  accurate  description  would  be  as  follows  : 

1.  The  personal  pronoun  of  the  first  person  is  that  used  when  one 
speaks  of  himself  singly  (/),  or  of  himself  together  with  another 
person  or  other  persons  (we). 

2.  The  personal  pronoun  of  the  second  person  is  that  used  when 
one  speaks  of  the  person  or  persons  whom  he  is  addressing 
(you — thou,  ye). 

3.  The  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person  is  that  used  when  any 
person  or  persons,  thing  or  things,  are  spoken  of  (he,  she,it,  they). 

57,  Grammatical  Forms, — In  addition  to  person,  the  per^ 
sonal  pronouns  all  express  number  and  case,  and  the  third 
personal  pronoun  in  the  singular  number  expresses  gender. 

58,  Declension, — The  following  is  a  tabular  view  of  the 
personal  pronouns,  showing  their  various  inflections  and 


other  changes. 


Declension  of  the  Personal  Pronouns. 


Nom.        Poss.  Obj.  Nom.       Poss.          Obj. 

First  person,        I,        my  or  mine,      me.  We,    our  or  ours,      us. 

Second,  You,    your  or  yours,  you.  You,    your  or  yours,  you. 

fMas.       He,     his,  him.") 

Third,  -J  Fern.      She,    her  or  hers,      her.  >  They,  their  or  theirs,  them. 

\Neut.     It,       its,  it.    J 

Second pers.,  solemn  style. — Thou,  thy  or  thine,  thee.  Nom.pl.  Ye. 

The  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  have  two  forms  of 
the  possessive  case :  my,  mine;  thy,  thine;  our,  ours;  your,  yours; 
the  third  person  feminine  has  her,  hers ;  the  third  person 


30  ETYMOLOGY. 

plural  has  tlieir,  theirs.  The  former  of  each  pair  is  used  attribu- 
tively, i.  e.,  with  a  noun  expressed ;  the  latter  is  used  indepen- 
dently, after  a  verb.  Thus — 


This  is 


my 
her 


) 

/  your 
( their 


house.     But,  This  house  is 


mine. 

hers. 

ours. 

yours. 

theirs. 


The  former  set  are  generally  called  possessive  adjectives  or  pos- 
sessive adjective  pronouns  ;  the  latter  are  by  some  grammarians 
called  personal  pronouns  in  the  possessive  case,  and  by  others 
are  considered  independent  possessive  pronouns,  in  the  nomi- 
native or  objective  case,  according  to  their  construction  in  a 
sentence. 

59,  Compounds,  —  A  compound  form  is  obtained  for  the 
personal  pronouns,  in  the  nominative  and  objective  cases,  by 
adding  self  or  selves  to  the  possessive  of  the  first  and  second 
persons,  and  to  the  objective  of  the  third  person. 

SINGULAR.  PLT7RAL. 

1.      Myself,  Ourselves. 


2.  \  Thyself>    I          Yourselves. 
}  Yourself,  ) 


(Himself,   j 

3.  <  Herself,     V          Themselves. 
(itself,        j 

I.  Sometimes  these  compounds  are  put  in  apposition  to  another 
word  merely  to  give  it  force;  in  this  instance  they  may  be 
termed  emphatic  personal  pronouns:  as,  "John  himself  went  ;" 
"  They  went  themselves" 

II.  When  used  after  a  transitive*  verb,  such  words  are  termed 
reflexive  pronouns,  as  implying  the  bending  back  of  an  action 
upon  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of:  as,  "John  hurt  himself" 

III.  The  pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons  do  not  mark 
distinctions  of  gender,  because  when  a  person  speaks  of  himself 
or  to  another,  the  sex,  being  evident,  does  not  require  to  be 
formally  expressed.     The  plurals  are  necessarily  indeterminate 

*  See  §91. 


RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.  31 

in  gender,  as  ice,  you,  and  they  may  include  persons  of  different 
sexes. 

IV.  You  is  now  employed  both  as  the  singular  and  plural  of  the 
second  person,  but  is  used  only  with  verbs  in  the  plural  num- 
ber: as,  "You  are"  (not  art).  Thou,  the  old  form,  is  now  ob- 
solete except  in  religious  or  poetical  use,  and  in  the  idiom  of 
the  Society  of  Friends. 

II.  RELATIVE   PRONOUNS. 

60,  A  relative  pronoun  is   a  pronoun  that  both  repre- 
sents a  preceding  noun  or  pronoun  and  connects  with  it  a 
dependent  proposition  :*  as — 

1.  No  PEOPLE  can  be  great  who  [have  ceased  to  be  virtuous], 

2.  How  blest  is  HE  who  crowns  in  shades  like  these 
A  youth  of  labor  with  an  age  of  ease. 

8.  I  have  found  the  SHEEP  which  was  lost. 

4. 1  dare  do  ALL  that  may  become  a  man. 

5.  One  man  admires  what  displeases  another. 
All  pronouns  have  a  representative  use ;  but  what  is  peculiar  in 
the  relatives  is  their  connective  office.  (On  this  account  the 
relatives  are  often  called  conjunctive  pronouns.)  They  go  back 
(relate)  in  meaning  to  some  foregoing  (antecedent)  word  or 
words  with  which  they  serve  to  join  some  descriptive  state- 
ment. A  relative  pronoun  cannot  form  the  subject  of  an  in- 
dependent proposition. 

61,  The  antecedent  of  a  relative  is  the  noun  or  pronoun 
represented  by  the  relative. 

62,  The  relative  pronouns  are  who^  which,  that,  and  what. 
Who  is  used  to  represent  persons,  and  which  to  represent  in- 
ferior animals  and  lifeless  things ;  that  refers  both  to  persons 
and  things,  and  is  used  instead  of  who  or  which  in  certain 
circumstances. 

NOTE.— The  rules  for  the  use  of  that  belong  to  Syntax  (see  page  181). 
For  the  idiomatic  use  of  as  and  but  as  relatives,  see  Idiomatic  Forms, 
page  186. 

*  For  the  definition  of  dependent  proposition  (or  clause),  see  §  220. 


32  ETYMOLOGY. 

Who  and  which  are  inflected  as  follows,  alike  in  the  singular  and 
the  plural : 

BING.  &  PI,.  ,  BING.  &  PL. 

Nom who  which 

Pass whose  whose 

Obj whom  which 

That  and  what  are  indeclinable. 

63,  What  is  a  relative  used  without  an  antecedent,  and 
is  equivalent  in  meaning  to  that  which.     (See  page  109.) 

64,  Compound  relatives  are  formed  by  adding  ever  and 
soever  to  who,  which,  and  what.     These  compounds  may  be 
called  indefinite  relative  pronouns.    Whosoever  is  declined — 

Nom whosoever 

Pass whosesoever 

Obj whomsoever 

III.  INTERROGATIVE    PRONOUNS. 

65,  An  interrogative  pronoun  is  a  pronoun  used  in  ask- 
ing a  question.     They. are  who?  which?  and  what?    Who 
and  what  are  declined  in  the  same  manner  as  the  corre- 
sponding relatives. 

66,  Who  is  applied  to  persons :  thus — 

Who  told  you  so  ?     Whose  is  this  book  ?    To  ichom  shall  I  apply  ? 

67,  Which  is  applied  both  to  persons  and  things  when  it 
is  used  to  ask  which  individual  of  a  known  class  or  number 
is  the  object  inquired  about :  thus — 

Which  of  you  did  this  ?     Which  (thing)  shall  I  take  ? 

68,  What  is  used  with  reference  to  things  in  an  indefinite 
manner :  thus — 

What  shall  I  say  ?     What  do  you  want  ? 


THE  PRONOUN.— REVIEW.  33 

EXERCISE    5. 

Select  the  pronouns,  and  state  to  which  class  each  belongs : 

1.  I  hope  you  will  give  me  the  book  I  lent  you.  2.  Whenever  Antonio  met 
Shylock  on  the  Rialto,  he  used  to  reproach  him  with  his  usuries  and  hard  deal- 
ings; which  the  Jew  would  hear  with  seeming  patience,  while  he  secretly 
meditated  revenge.  3.  What  did  the  prisoner  say?  4.  Tell  me  what  the  pris- 
oner said.  5.  Ours  are  as  good  as  yours.  6.  You  must  blame  yourselves  for 
your  loss.  7.  Who  would  be  free,  themselves  must  strike  the  blow.  8.  Who 
would  fardels  bear,  to  groan  and  sweat  under  a  weary  life,  when  he  himself 
might  his  quietus  make  with  a  bare  bodkin  ?  9.  She  deserves  great  praise  for 
her  work.  10.  Behold  the  moon ;  she  cometh  forth  in  her  beauty.  11.  This  is 
not  the  book  that  I  sent  you  for. 

12.  And  I  have  loved  thee,  Ocean !  and  my  joy 

Of  youthful  sports  was  on  thy  breast  to  be 

Borne,  like  thy  bubbles,  onward :  from  a  boy 

I  wantoned  with  thy  breakers — they  to  me 

Were  a  delight;  and,  if  the  freshening  sea 

Made  them  a  terror — 'twas  a  pleasing  fear; 

For  I  was  as  it  were  a  child  of  thee, 

And  trusted  to  thy  billows  far  and  near, 

And  laid  my  hand  upon  thy  mane— as  I  do  here. 


GENERAL  REVIEW  OF  PRONOUNS. 

A. 

TOPICAL  ANALYSIS. 
I.  Definition  of  the  Pronoun. 

1.  REAL  NATURE  OF  THE  PRONOUN. 

2.  COMPARED  WITH  THE  NOUN. 

a^  Resemblances. 
~b.  Differences. 

II.  Classification  of  the  Pronoun. 

1.  PERSONAL  DEFINED. 

2.  NUMBER  OF  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

a.  Use  of  the  first  personal. 
&.  Use  of  the  second  personal, 
c.  Use  of  the  third  personal. 
B2 


34:  ETYMOLOGY. 

3.  GRAMMATICAL  FORMS  OP  PERSONAL  PRONOUNS. 

4.  DECLENSION. 

a.  First  personal. 
Z>.  Second  personal. 

c.  Third  personal. 

d.  Double  possessive  forms. 

5.  COMPOUND  PERSONALS. 

Their  functions. 

6.  RELATIVE  DEFINED. 

7.  ANTECEDENT  DEFINED. 

8.  PRINCIPAL  RELATIVES. 

a.  Who — its  use. 
1).  Who — declined. 

c.  Which — its  use. 

d.  That— its  use. 

e.  Compound  relatives. 

9.  INTERROGATIVE  DEFINED. 

a.  Who? 
I.  Which? 
c.What? 


B. 

WRITTEN  REVIEW. 

1.  Define  pronoun. 

2.  State  in  what  respect  the  ordinary  definition  is  inadequate. 

3.  Write  the  full  definitions  of  the   personal  pronouns  of  the  first, 

second,  and  third  persons  respectively. 

4.  Explain  mine,  thine,  ours,  yours,  theirs.    What  is  the  difference  be- 

tween my  and  mine  ? — their  and  theirs  ? 

5.  When  was  the  word  its  first  introduced  ?     What  form  did  it  sup- 

plant ?* 

6.  What  is  peculiar  in  the  use  of  the  relative  pronouns  ? 

7.  Write  a  sentence  containing  who  as  a  relative ; — a  sentence  contain- 

ing which  as  a  relative ; — a  sentence  containing  whom  as  a  relative. 

8.  Write  a  sentence  containing  who  as  an  interrogative ;  —  a  sentence 

containing  whom  as  an  interrogative. 

*  See  Appendix,  page  241. 


THE  ADJECTIVE.— CLASSIFICATION.  35 


CHAPTER  IY. 

THE  ADJECTIVE. 

I.  DEFINITION. 

69,  An  adjective*  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun  (or  pronoun) 
to  limit  or  qualify  its  meaning :  thus — 

1.  This  book ;  five  apples;  a  white  horse ;  red  roses ;  wise  men. 

2,  The  fields  are  green.     We  call  the  proud  happy. 

I.  All  adjectives  limit  the  application  of  the  nouns  to  which  they 
are  joined,  and  in  the  case  of  one  class  of  adjectives  (namely, 
the  limiting)  the  sole  office  is  that  of  restricting  the  extent  of 
application  of  the  noun.     Thus :  "  this  book " — that  is,  not  a~ 
book  in  general,  or  your  book;  "Jive  apples"  (no  more  or  less). 

But  qualifying  adjectives  have  a  double  office:  while  they  narrow 
the  application  of  the  nouns  with  which  they  are  joined,  they 
also  increase  their  meaning.  Thus,  in  the  expression  "  a  white 
horse,"  the  adjective  "white"  adds  to  the  notion  " horse"  the 
notion  of  a  certain  attribute,  namely,  that  of  whiteness ;  so  that 
"  white  horse"  forms  one  complex  description.  But  the  adjec- 
tive "  white "  serves  also  to  confine  the  meaning  of  the  term 
"horse"  to  one  of  a  special  kind  of  horses,  namely,  "white 
horses;"  and  these  form  a  smaller  class  than  "horses"  in 
general. 

II.  An  adjective  is  not  always  joined  directly  (attributively)  to  a 
noun;   the  attribute  named  by  the  adjective  may  be  asserted 
(predicatively)  by  means  of  a  verb :  as,  "  The  fields  are  green  ;" 
"  We  call  the  proud  hajipy." 


II.  CLASSIFICATION. 
70,  Adjectives  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes: 

*  From  Latin  adjectivus,  that  may  be  added  or  annexed  to  something  (that 
is,  to  a  noun  or  a  pronoun). 


36  ETYMOLOGY. 

I.  LIMITING  (or  definitive)  ADJECTIVES.     II.  QUALIFYING  (or 
descriptive}  ADJECTIVES. 

I.  LIMITING    ADJECTIVES. 

71  •  A  limiting  (or  definitive)  adjective  is  one  that  merely 
defines  or  restricts  the  meaning  of  a  noun  :  as — 

a  book ;  this  school ;  some  peaches ;  three  black  crows. 

72 •  Limiting  adjectives  are  subdivided  into  three  classes : 
I.  ARTICLES.  II.  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES.  III.  NUMERAL 
ADJECTIVES. 

I.  Articles. 

73 1  The  limiting  adjectives  the  and  an  or  a  are  called 
articles.*  The  is  called  the  definite  article  /  an,  or  a,  the 
indefinite  article. 

I.  The  is  used  to  point  out  (1)  one  or  more  particular  objects  or 
(2)  a  class  of  objects:  as,  "  The  dog  bit  the  boys;"  that  is,  the 
particular  "dog"  and  "boys"  previously  referred  to.     "  The 
dog  is  a  faithful  animal ;"  that  is,  the  class  or  Tcind  of  animals 
named  dogs. 

II.  An,  or  a,  is  used  to  indicate  any  one  of  a  class  of  objects  named 
by  a  noun  :  as,  "J.  dog  bit  me."     "  I  saw  an  old  man." 

74,  An  and  af  (which  are  merely  different  forms  of  the 
same  word)  are  both  called  the  indefinite  article. 

A  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  consonant  sound : 

*  There  is  no  good  reason  for  erecting  the  articles  into  a  part  of  speech. 
They  are  simply  limiting  adjectives,  and,  strictly  speaking,  do  not  deserve  to 
be  made  even  a  separate  subdivision  of  this  class  of  adjectives ;  for  the  is  merely 
a  contracted  form  of  the  demonstrative  that,  and  an,  or  a,  a  contracted  form  of 
the  numeral  one  (Anglo-Saxon  ane  or  an).  The  term  "  article  "  is,  however,  in 
such  common  use  that  it  has  been  retained  in  this  book. 

t  The  n  in  an  is  a  part  of  the  root  (Anglo-Saxon  ane  or  an  =  one).  Hence 
it  is  not  a  that  becomes  an  before  a  vowel  or  a  silent  h,  according  to  the  com- 
mon rule,  but  an  that  loses  its  final  letter  before  a  consonant. 


PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES. 


37 


as,  "  a  man,"  "  a  house,"  "  a  wonder,"  "  a  year,"  "  a  use," 
"  a  unit,"  "  a  European."* 

An  is  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  sound : 
as,  "an  art,"  "an  end,"  "an  heir,"  "an  hour,"  "an  urn."f 

II.  Pronominal  Adjectives. 

75,  Some  limiting  adjectives  may  by  themselves  repre- 
sent a  noun.     When  thus  used  they  are  called  pronominal 
adjectives, 

A  pronominal  adjective  (pro,  for,  and  nomen,  a  name  or  noun)  some- 
times performs  the  office  both  of  an  adjective  and  of  a  noun. 
Thus:  "Is  this  his  book?"  "No,  it  is  mine"  (—my  bopk). 
We  heard  the  minister's  speech,  but  not  that  (=  the  speech)  of 
the  doctor." 

76,  The  principal  pronominal  adjectives  are  included  in 
the  following  list : 

all  each  much  some 

another  either  neither  such 

any  few  own  that 

both  many  several  this 

The  following  sentences  illustrate  the  use  of  these  words  as  limit- 
ing adjectives  and  as  pronominal  adjectives : 


LIMITING    ADJECTIVES. 

All  the  world's  a  stage. 
There   is  another  and  a   better 
world. 

Is  there  any\  danger  ? 


PRONOMINAL    ADJECTIVES. 

All  assented  to  the  plan. 
Never  either   found  another  to 
free  the  hollow  heart  from  paining. 
If  any,  speak. 


*  £7 long  (that  is,  sounded  like  the  combination  you\  as  also  its  representa- 
tive eu,  has  an  initial  consonant  sound ;  hence,  a  use,  a  eulogy. 

t  In  regard  to  the  employment  of  a  or  of  an  before  words  beginning  with  7i 
aspirate  there  is  a  difference  of  usage,  especially  in  the  case  of  certain  words 
commencing  with  h  faintly  sounded,  and  when  the  accent  is  on  the  second 
syllable.  Thus,  while  we  say  "a  history,"  "a  hero,"  many  prefer  to  write 
"an  historical  work,"  "an  heroic  deed."  This  is  perhaps  the  more  scholarly, 
but  it  does  not  promise  to  become  t\\e  popular  usage. 

I  Any  contains  the  original  form  of  the  numeral  one  (Anglo-Saxon  an), 
with  the  suffix  ig  or  y. 


38: 


ETYMOLOGY. 


LIMITING    ADJECTIVES. 

Both  courses  are  dangerous. 
Each*  ivied  arch  is  in  decay. 

Either^  plan  promises  well. 
Few  men  can  bear  prosperity. 

We  have  passed  many  happy 
days. 

I  have  much  pleasure  in  serving 
you. 

Neither  plan  promises  well. 

This  is  my  own,  my  native  land. 

Several  boys  ran  away. 

Some  pious  drops  the  closing  eye 
requires. 

Such\  harmony  is  in  immortal 
souls. 

Look  on  this  picture. 

Look  on  that  picture. 


PRONOMINAL   ADJECTIVES. 

Both  are  dangerous. 

Each  seemed  the  centre  of  his 
own  fair  world. 

I  will  take  eitlier. 

Few,  few  shall  part  where  many 
meet. 

Few,  few  shall  part  where  many 
meet. 

Though  much  is  taken,  much  re- 
mains. 

I  will  take  either,  but  you  shall 
have  neither. 

It  is  a  trifle,  but  my  men. 

Several  were  missing. 

Some  fell  by  the  wayside. 

If  you  are  a  man,  show  yourself 
such. 

Look  on  this. 
Look  on  that. 


NOTES   ON  LIMITING  AND  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES. 

I.  Demonstratives. — The  following  pronominal  adjectives  are  often 
named  demonstratives,  or  demonstrative  adjectives  (or  pronouns) :  this, 
these  ;  that,  those  ;  former,  latter  ;  same,  such. 

II.  Indefinites. — The  following  are  often  named  indefinite  adjectives 
(or  pronouns) :  all,  any,  another,  few,  many,  none,  other,  some. 

III.  Distributives.— The  following  are  often  named  distributive  ad- 
jectives (or  pronouns) :  each,  either,  neither. 

IV.  Interrogative  and  Relative.— The  interrogative  and  relative 
pronouns  which  and  what,  with  their  compounds  whichever  and  isliatever, 
when  used  with  nouns,  are  classed  as  limiting  adjectives. 

*  Each  is  derived  from  Old-English  a=ever,  and  Zic=like. 
t  "  Neither"  is  either  with  the  negative  prefix  ne=not. 
I  Such  is  derived  from  so  (Old-English  swa)  and  like  (Old-English  ftc),  that 
is,  so  like  or  this  like. 


NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES.  39 

(  Which  book  will  you  have  ? 
InterrogatiTCS. . .  <  .      ,     .... 

(  What  noise  is  this  ? 

{  I  see  which  book  you  wish. 

BelatiTes <  .  J 

( I  know  wriat  pains  you  take. 

V.  Limiting1  Only. — The  indefinite  adjective  no*  the  demonstrative 
adjective  yonder,  and  the  distributive  adjective  enery\  are  used  solely 
as  limiting  adjectives. 

The  indefinite  none%  is  pronominal  only:  as,  "None  knew  thee  but  to 
love  thee." 

VI.  Inflected  Forms. — Some  of  the  pronominal  adjectives  have  so 
completely  assumed  the  office  of  nouns  that  they  undergo  inflections. 
Thus,  either  and  another  have  a  possessive  form,  either*  8,  another 's :  as — 

1.  Then  cither's  love  was  either* s  life. 

2.  Learn  to  feel  another's  woe. 

Other  has  a  plural,  others,  which  is  regularly  declined :  nom.  others ; 
poss.  others'1;  obj.  others. 


III.  Numeral  Adjectives. 

77.  A  numeral  adjective  is  one  that  expresses  a  definite 
number:  as,  one,  two,  three ;  first,  second,  etc. 

78,  Numeral  adjectives  are  divided  into  two  classes: 

1.  Cardinal,  which  denote  how  many:  as,  "two  bats;" 
« three  balls." 

The  cardinal  numerals  from  one  to  ninety-nine  are  adjectives ;  but 
the  words  hundred,  thousand,  million  (like  pair  and  dozen)  are 
nouns,  and  may  be  preceded  by  the  indefinite  article :  as,  "  a 
hundred  sheep ;"§  or  may  take  the  plural  form:  as,  "hundreds 
of  sheep." 

*  "  No  "  is  formed  from  none  by  dropping  ne,  just  as  my  is  formed  from  mine. 

t  "Every"  is  a  contraction  of  ever  each="e&ch  and  all"  (of  two  or  more 
objects). 

%  uNone"  is  formed  from  Old-English  ne  aw^not  one. 

§  In  Anglo-Saxon  these  words  were  followed  by  a  noun  in  the  possessive 
(genitive)  case:  thus,  "a  hundred  sheep  "=a  hundred  of  sheep. 


40  ETYMOLOGY. 

2.  Ordinal,  which  denote  in  what  order  things  are  ar- 
ranged in  a  series :  as,  "  the  first  prize ;"  "  the  third  day ;" 
"  the  hundredth  night." 

I.  The  ordinal  numerals,  with  the  exception  of  the  first  two,  are 
formed  from  the  cardinal  numerals :   thus,  fourth,  fifth,  sixth, 
thousandth,  etc.     "But  first  and  second  are  not  etymologically  con- 
nected with  one,  two.     First  (—foremost)  is  the  superlative  of 
fore.     Second  is  from  Latin  secundus. 

II.  The  term  multiplicative*  is  sometimes  applied  to  numerals 
denoting  repetition:    as,  "twice,"  or  "twofold;"    "thrice"  or 
"threefold;"  "fifty-fold,"  "double."  etc. 

II.  QUALIFYING    ADJECTIVES. 

79,  A  qualifying  (or  descriptive)  adjective  is  one  that 
denotes  some  quality  or  attribute  of  the  object  named  by 
the  noun :  thus — 

A  lofty  mountain.     A  running  stream. 

I.  To  this  class  belongs  the  great  body  of  adjectives ;  for  it  in^ 
eludes  the  thousands  of  words  expressive  of  the  various  qual- 
ities, attributes,  and  properties  which  we  ascertain  either  through 
the  senses  or  by  a  process  of  thought. 

II.  It  is  needless  for  grammatical  purposes  to  make  any  subdi- 
vision of  qualifying  adjectives;  but  it  may  be  useful  to  give  an 
explanation  of  the  following  terms,  which  are  sometimes  applied 
to  certain  adjectives  of  this  class : 

1.  Proper  Adjectives* — These  are   derived  from  proper  nouns: 
as,  "  an  American  idea;1'  "Platonic  love."     They  are  in  their 
nature  qualifying  adjectives,  and  have  nothing  peculiar  except 
that  they  are  written  with  an  initial  capital. 

2.  Participial  Adjectives. — By  a  participial  adjective*  is  meant 
a  participle  used  strictly  as  an  adjective  :  as,  "  a  loving  friend  ;" 
"  an  educated  man." 

It  seems  unnecessary  to  designate  such  words  by  a  special  name 
("participial  adjectives").  They  have  ceased  to  be  participles, 
and  may  be  parsed  simply  as  qualifying  adjectives. 

. 

*  See  page  64. 


THE  ADJECTIVE.— GRAMMATICAL  FORMS.  41 

3.  A  compound  adjective  is  formed  from  two  simple  words,  with 
an  intervening  hyphen  :  as,  "  a  white-robed  maiden ;"  "the  straw- 
built  shed ;"  "  a  heart-rending  scream."  It  is  unnecessary  in 
parsing  to  specify  that  an  adjective  is  compound,  any  more  than 
that  it  is  primitive  or  derivative. 


III.  GRAMMATICAL   FOKM  OF  THE  ADJECTIVE. 

80,  Adjectives  have  but  one  grammatical  form,  namely, 
comparison. 

In  many  languages  adjectives  are  inflected  to  mark  gender,  num- 
ber, and  case,  and  in  these  respects  they  are  made  to  agree  with 
their  nouns.  A  Latin  adjective,  like  bonus  (good),  followed 
through  all  its  inflections,  assumes  twelve  different  forms.  In 
the  earliest  English  there  were  several  such  inflections.  Thus 
the  adjective  good,  preceded  by  the  definite  article,  was,  when 
used  with  a  masculine  noun  in  the  nominative  case,  god#,  with 
a  feminine  noun  gocte,  and  with  a  neuter  noun  gode;  the  nom- 
inative plural  was  godan.  But  these  variations  had  all  disap- 
peared from  our  speech  several  centuries  ago.* 

81,  Comparison  is  a  modification  of  adjectives  (and  ad- 
verbs) to  express  degrees  of  quantity  or  quality. 

82,  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison — tlie  positive, 
the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

83,  The  positive  degree  of  an  adjective  is  the  adjective 
without   modification,  used  to   denote   simple   quantity  or 
quality :  as,  long,  righteous. 

84,  The  comparative  degree  of  an  adjective  is  that  modi- 
fication of  it  by  means  of  which  we -show  that  one  thingf  or 

*  "The  irreconcilability  of  the  Norman  and  Saxon  modes  of  inflecting  ad- 
jectives compelled  the  English  to  discard  them  both ;  but  the  Saxon  endings 
of  number  were  not  given  up  till  the  fifteenth  century." — Marsh  :  Lectures  on 
the  English  Language. 


42  ETYMOLOGY. 

set  of  tilings,  possesses  a  certain  quality  or  attribute  in  a 
greater  degree  than  another  thing,  or  set  of  things :  thus— 

1.  My  knife  is  sharper  than  yours. 

One  thing  compared  with  another. 

2.  This  soldier  is  taller  than  those. 

One  thing  compared  with  a  number  of  things. 

3.  Your  parents  are  richer  than  mine. 

A  set  of  things  compared  with  a  set  of  things. 

4.  These  books  are  larger  than  that  one. 

A  set  of  things  compared  with  one  thing. 

85,  The  superlative  degree  of  an  adjective  is  that  modifi- 
cation of  it  by  means  of  which  we  show  that  a  certain  thing, 
or  set  of  things,  possesses  some  quality  or  attribute  in  a  greater 
degree  than  any  other  of  the  class  to  which  it  belongs :  as, 
"  the  tallest  soldier ;"  "  the  minutest  grain." 

86.  Formation, — I.  Adjectives  of  one  syllable  generally 
form  their  comparative  by  suffixing  er,  and  their  superlative 
by  suffixing  est,  to  the  positive  :~*  thus — 

POSITIVE.  COMPARATIVE.  SUPEHLATIVK. 

«        bold  bolder  boldest 

wise  wiser  wisest 

II.  Adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  generally  form 
their  comparative  by  joining  the  adverb  more,  and  their 
superlative  by  joining  the  adverb  most,  with  the  positive : 
thus — 

POSITIVE.  COMPARATIVE.  SUPERLATIVE. 

faithful  more  faithful  most  faithful 

dangerous  more  dangerous  most  dangerous 

I.  This  is  the  general  rule ;  but  from  it  there  are  frequent  de- 
partures.    Thus  many  two-syllabled  adjectives  ending  in  y,  ?^, 

*  In  adding  these  suffixes  the  usual  "rules  for  spelling  derivative  words  are 
to  be  observed. 


THE  ADJECTIVE.— NOTES.  43 

ow,  and  er  form  their  comparative  and  superlative  by  suffixing 
er  and  est :  as — 


happy 
able 
shallow 
tender 


happier 
abler 
shallower 
tenderer 


happiest 
ablest 
shallowest 
tenderest 


But  it  would  sound  harsh  to  say  prudenter,  earnestc&t.     In  this 
matter  euphony  is  the  guide. 

II.  On  the  other  hand,  even  short  adjectives  may  be  compared  by 
means  of  more  and  most,  if  the  ear  is  satisfied  :  thus,  "  Alfred 
is  the  most  apt  of  all  the  pupils."  "  Give  us  more  ample  ground." 

87,  Irregular  comparison  is  a  mode  of  marking  the  de- 
grees of  comparison  different  from  the  regular  mode.  The 
following  are  irregular  comparisons : 


COMPARATIVE. 

SUPERLATIVE. 

better 

best 

better 

best 

worse 

worst 

less 

least 

more 

most 

farther 

farthest 

further 

furthest 

nearer 

nearest  or  next 

nigher 
later  or  latter 

nighest  or  next 
latest  or  last 

older  or  elder 

oldest  or  eldest 

hinder 

hindmost 

upper 

upmost 

utter  or  outer 

utmost,  uttermost,  or  outmost 

NOTES   ON  IRREGULAR  ADJECTIVES. 

Good :  Better  and  lest  [bet-est]  are  the  comparative  and  the  superla- 
tive of  the  obsolete  Anglo-Saxon  let,  a  synonym  of  good. 


44  ETYMOLOGY. 

Bad  :  Worse  and  worst  are  the  comparative  and  superlative  of  the 
obsolete  Anglo-Saxon  weor,  a  synonym  of  bad. 

06s.—  A  regular  comparative,  badder,  is  found  iu  early  English. 

Old:  The  regular  comparative  and  superlative  are  used  when  old  is 
contrasted  with  new  ;  the  irregular  forms  when  it  is  contrasted  with 
young;  as,  "  The  older  house  belongs  to  the  elder  brother."  But  older 
and  oldest  are  often  applied  to  animate  beings;  elder  and  eldest  never 
to  inanimate. 

Obs.  —  Elder  does  not  now  denote  greater  age  so  much  as  the  relation  of 
precedence;  it  cannot  be  followed  by  than. 

Late  :  The  regular  forms  later  and  latest  are  opposed  to  earlier  and 
earliest;  the  irregular  forms  latter  and  last  are  opposed  to  former  and 
first.  Last  is  a  compression  of  late-est. 

Farther,  further:  Farther,  from  far,  means  more  distant,  and  is 
opposed  to  nearer;  as,  "I  prefer  the  farther  house."  Farther,  from 
forth,  means  more  advanced  or  additional  ;  as,  "  I  shall  mention  a 
further  reason." 

Inner,  inmost,  have  no  positive  :  down,  downmost,  and  top,  topmost, 
have  no  comparative  ;  nether,  nethermost,  are  the  comparative  and  su- 
perlative of  neath. 

Obs.—  The  suffix  most,  in  these  superlatives,  is  not  the  adverb  most.  It 
is  realty  a  double  superlative  ending,  compounded  of  the  two  Anglo- 
Saxon  endings  ma  and  ost,  each  of  which  is  equivalent  to  est.  Hence 


88,  Incomparables,  —  Adjectives  that  are  of  absolute  or 
superlative  signification  cannot,  if  taken  in  their  strict  sense, 
be  compared  :  as  — 

Dead,  perpendicular,  empty,  round—  (adjectives  having  no  shades 

of  meaning). 
Perfect,  infinite,  supreme,  universal  —  (adjectives   expressing  the 

highest  possible  degree). 

I.  Many  of  these  adjectives  are  compared  in  colloquial  use,  and 
even  by  good  writers,  and  such  comparison  may  be  deemed 
allowable  on  the  theory  that  these  adjectives  are  nofr  used  in 


THE  ADJECTIVE.— REVIEW. 


their  strict  sense.  However,  we  can  generally  avoid  such  com- 
parisons. In  place  of  saying  "  more  perfect,"  "  more  perpen- 
dicular," etc.,  we  may  say  "  more  nearly  perfect,"  "  more  nearly 
perpendicular,"  etc. 

II.  Some  adjectives,  as  anterior,  superior,  inferior,  senior,  junior, 
prior,  posterior,  etc.,  suggest  the  idea  of  comparison  (and  they 
are  real  Latin  comparatives),  but  they  do  not  admit  its  forms ; 
and  when  a  comparison  is  implied  these  adjectives  are  followed 
by  to,  and  not  by  than,  as  comparatives  usually  are :  as,  "  This 
event  was  anterior  to  the  Revolution."  "  Your  ability  is  superior 
to  mine."  

GENERAL  REVIEW  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

A. 
TABLE  FOR  BLACKBOARD. 


c  Limiting 


Classes . 


(  ARTICLE 


PRONOMINAL  . 


j  Definite. 
\  Indefinite. 

f  Demonstrative. 

Indefinite. 
<  Distributive. 

Interrogative  and 
Relative. 


Gram.  Forms 

Inflections 


f  Cardinal. 

NUMERAL I  Ordinal. 

[  Multiplicative. 
I  Qualifying. 
...Comparison  only. 
Comparative,  -er. 
Superlative,  -est. 


B. 

TOPICAL  ANALYSIS. 
I.  Definition. 

1.  OFFICE  OF  ALL  ADJECTIVES. 

2.  OFFICE  OF  QUALIFYING  ADJECTIVES. 

II.  Classification. 

1.  NUMBER  OF  CLASSES. 

2.  NAMES  OF  CLASSES. 


46  ETYMOLOGY. 

III.  Limiting  Adjectives. 

1.  DEFINITION. 

2.  SUBDIVISION. 

a.  Articles. 

&.  Pronominal  adjectives. 

c.  Numeral  adjectives. 

3.  ARTICLES. 

a.  Definition. 

1.  The — name  and  use. 

c.  An,  or  a — name  and  use. 

d.  Rules  for  their  use. 

4.  PRONOMINAL  ADJECTIVES. 

a.  Definition. 

(1)  Demonstratives — example. 

(2)  Indefinites — example. 

(3)  Distributives — example. 

(4)  Interrogatives  and  relatives — example. 

5.  NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES. 

a.  Definition. 
5.  Subdivision. 

(1)  Cardinals — definition. 

(2)  Ordinals — definition. 

(3)  Multiplicatives— definition. 

EV.  Qualifying  Adjectives. 
1.  DEFINITION. 

V.  Grammatical  Forms. 

1.  COMPARISON — DEFINITION. 

2.  NUMBER  OF  DEGREES. 

a.  Positive — definition. 
Z>.  Comparative — definition. 
c.  Superlative — definition. 

3.  RULES  OF  FORMATION. 

a.  Monosyllabic  words. 

b.  Polysyllabic  words. 

4.  ADJECTIVES  INCOMPARABLE. 


THE  ADJECTIVE.— REVIEW.  47 


c. 

WRITTEN  REVIEW. 

1.  Give  the  derivation  of  the  word  "  adjective." 

2.  Explain  how  an  adjective  both  limits  and  enlarges  the  sense  of  a 
noun. 

3.  Write  a  sentence  containing  two  limiting  adjectives ;  a  sentence 
containing  three  qualifying  adjectives. 

4.  Which  is  preferable,  "  a  historical  work  "  or  "  an  historical  work  ?" 
State  the  reason  for  your  preference. 

5.  Write  a  sentence  containing  two  or  more  proper  adjectives. 

6.  Explain  the  meaning  of  the  terms  positive,  comparative,  and  super- 
lative. 

7.  Write  a  sentence  containing  an  adjective  in  each  of  the  degrees 
of  comparison. 

8.  Copy  the  following,  drawing  one  line  under  each  adjective,  and 
two  lines  under  the  word  it  limits  or  qualifies. 

The  house-dog,  on  his  paws  outspread, 

Laid  to  the  fire  his  drowsy  head; 

The  cat's  dark  silhouette  on  the  wall 

A  couchant  tiger's  seemed  to  fall; 

And,  for  the  winter  fireside  meet, 

Between  the  andiron's  straddling  feet, 

The  mug  of  cider  simmered  slow, 

The  apples  sputtered  in  a  row; 

And  close  at  hand  the  basket  stood, 

With  nuts  from  brown  October's  wood.— TTViittier. 


48  ETYMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER    V. 

THE  VERB. 
I.  DEFINITION. 

89,  A  verb  is  a  word  that  predicates*  action  or  leing : 
as — 

1.  Full  well  they  laughed  with  counterfeited  glee 
At  all  his  jokes,  for  many  a  joke  had  he. 

2.  All  are  but  parts  of  one  harmonious  whole. 

I.  The  predication,  i.  e.,  the  assertion  or  statement,  is  made  about 
some  person  or  thing,  and  the  word  naming  that  person  or  thing 
is  called  the  subject  of  the  verb. 

II.  The  distinguishing  mark  of  the  verb  is  its  possession  of  gram- 
matical forms  to  denote  varieties  of  yerson,  number,  time,  and 
mode  of  predication. 


II.    CLASSES   OF  VERBS. 

90.  Verbs  are  divided  into  two  classes :  I.  TRANSITIVE. 
II.  INTRANSITIVE. 

91,  A  transitive!  verb  is  one  that  denotes  an  action 
terminating  on  some  object :  thus — 

1.  Richard  struck  the  ball— [action  terminating  on  the  object 

named,  "ball"]. 

2.  Milton  wrote  Paradise  Lost — [action  terminating  on  the  object 

named,  "  Paradise  Lost "]. 

*  "To  predicate,"  from  Latin  prccdicare,  to  tell,  assert,  declare,  or  make 
known. 

t  "  Transitive"  is  from  Latin  trans,  over,  and  ire,  to  go=going  or  passing 
over, — the  idea  being  that  the  action,  instead  of  being  merely  asserted  of  the 
subject,  passes  over  and  affects  or  terminates  on  some  object. 


THE  VERB.— CLASSES.  49 

92,  Complement. — A  transitive  verb  does  not  by  itself 
make  a  complete  statement ;  it  requires  a  completing  term, 
or  complement.     Some  intransitive  verbs,  also,  require  a 
completing  term,  though  of  a  kind  different  from  that  re- 
quired by  the  transitive  verb.     (See  §  94.) 

The  complement  of  any  verb  is  the  word  or  words  re- 
quired to  complete  the  statement.  The  complement  of  a 
transitive  verb  is  called  its  object:  as,  "ball,"  "Paradise 
Lost,"  in  §  91. 

I.  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  always  a  noun  (or  its  equiv- 
alent) in  the  objective  case. 

II.  Every  transitive  verb  is  an  incomplete  verb,  or  a  verb  of  incom- 
plete predication.    Thus  "  Solomon  built — "  is  not  a  complete 
statement.    We  ask,  "Built  what?"    The  statement  may  be 
completed  in  this  way :   "  Solomon  built  the  Temple.'1''    Here 
the  complement  of  the  transitive  verb  "  built "  is  the  object 
"  Temple,"  a  noun  in  the  objective  case. 

93,  An  intransitive  verb  is  one  that  denotes  (1)  a  state  or 
condition,  or  (2)  an  action  not  terminating  on  an  object :  as — 

1.  Children  sleep — [state  or  condition]. 

2.  The  sea-bird  rises  as  the  billows  rise — [action  not  terminating 

on  an  object,  but  affecting  the  agent  only], 

94,  Complement, — Most  intransitive   verbs  make    com- 
plete statements ;  but  there  are  a  few  intransitive  verbs  of 
incomplete  predication  (as   ~be,  become,  seem,  look,  appear, 
smell,  feel,  and  the  like) ;  these  require  as  complement  either 
a  predicate  noun  or  a  predicate  adjective :  thus — 

1.  Mary  is  "beautiful — [adjective-complement  of  the  verb  "is"]. 

2.  Elizabeth  was  queen — [noun-complement  of  "  was  "]. 

3.  A  boy  becomes  a  man — [noun-complement  of  "becomes"]. 

4.  Cheerful  he  seemed,  and  gentleness  he  loved — [adjective-com- 

plement of  "  seemed  "]. 

5.  Macbeth  looked  pale — [adjective-complement  of  "looked"]. 

c 


50  ETYMOLOGY. 

6.  Henry  VIII.  appeared  every  inch  a  Icing — [noun-complement 

of  "appeared"]. 

7.  The  rose  smells  sweet — [adjective-complement  of  "  smells  "= 

the  rose  is  sweet  to  the  smell]. 

NOTE. — Verbs  of  this  ^lass  have  been  variously  designated  neuter  verbs,  cop- 
ula verbs,  and  apposition  verbs ;  but  there  is  no  need  of  a  special  designation  for 
them.  They  are  simply  intransitive  verbs  of  incomplete  predication. 

95,  Double  Use. — Many  verbs  expressing  action  may  be 
used  either  transitively  or  intransitively,  but  with  a  different 
meaning  in  each  case :  thus — 

^   (  The  baby  speaks  already — [intransitive]. 

'  (  The  man  speaks  several  languages — [transitive]. 
2  j  The  ship  sinks — [intransitive]. 

'  (  The  pirate  sinks  the  ship — [transitive]. 

I.  In  the  first  examples  the  action  denoted  by  the  verb  ("  speaks  ") 
is  asserted  in  an  indefinite  or  general  manner ;  in  the  transitive 
use  the  action  is  narrowed  down  to  a  particular  application 
("  speaks  several  languages  "). 

II.  In  the  second  examples  the  verb  used  transitively  signifies  to 
cause  to  do  that  which  the  intransitive  verb  expresses :  "  sinks 
the  ship"=cau8es  the  ship  to  sink.* 

96,  An  auxiliary  verb  is  one  used  to  assist  in  conjugating 
other  verbs :  as,  shall,  may,  should. 

NOTE.— For  the  definition  of  conjugation^  see  §  140.  The  auxiliary  verbs 
do  not  form  a  class  distinct  from  verbs  transitive  or  intransitive,  but 
are  themselves  either  transitive  or  intransitive. 


NOTES  ON  THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  VERBS. 

I.  Compounds. — Many  intransitive  verbs  when  followed  by  partic- 
ular prepositions  become  transitive  and  take  an  object.    Thus — 

The  baby  laughs. 

We  laughed  at  the  clown. 

*  This  example  belongs  to  a  numerous  class  of  verbs  which  some  gramma- 
rians have  called  causatives. 


THE   VERB.— EXERCISE.  51 

In  such  instances  the  preposition  seems  to  be  so  closely  united  in 
meaning  with  the  verb  as  to  form  a  kind  of  compound  verb.  Care 
should  be  taken,  however,  not  to  confound  such  compounds  (which 
have  a  transitive  force)  with  intransitive  verbs  followed  by  an  ordinary 
prepositional  phrase  :  as,  "  The  bird  sang  on  the  lough."  The  test 
of  a  real  compound  is  that  the  verb  may  be  used  in  the  passive  voice, 
the  object  of  the  preposition  becoming  the  subject  of  the  verb.  Thus : 
the  "  Robbers  fell-upon  him  "  (active) ;  "  He  was  fallen-upon  by  robbers" 
(passive). 

II.  Eeflexive  Yerbs. — Transitive  verbs,  when  followed  by  the  re- 
flexive pronouns,  myself,  himself,  etc.,  are  said  to  be  used  reflexively  ; 
that  is,  the  agent  is  spoken  of  as  acting  on  himself.     In  the  case  of 
many  transitive  verbs  we  have  almost  ceased  to  repeat  the  pronoun, 
and  so  the  verb  seems  complete  without  an  object.    I  wash  [myself],  the 
cow  feeds  [herself],  he  awakes  [himself],  are  used  intransitively;  but 
I  wash  the  floor,  you  feed  the  cattle,  he  awolce  me,  are  used  transitively. 

III.  Cognate  Objective. — Some  intransitive  verbs  take  as  comple- 
ment a  noun  in  the  objective  case,  with  a  meaning  akin  to  that  of  the 
verb :  as,  "  to  run  a  race,"  "  to  die  the  death,"  etc.     An  object  of  this 
kind  is  called  the  cognate  object. 


EXERCISE    6. 

Assign  each  verb  to  its  class  transitive  or  intransitive : 

1.  The  general  sent  a  message.  2.  The  wild  cataract  leaps  in  glory.  3.  1 
shot  the  albatross.  4.  Some  murmur  when  their  sky  is  clear.  5.  I  thought 
ten  thousand  swords  must  have  leaped  from  their  scabbards,  to  avenge  even  a 
look  that  threatened  her  with  insult.  6.  There  are  more  worlds  than  one.  7. 
How  pale  you  look !  8.  Richard  reads  a  book.  9.  Robert  reads  well.  10.  He 
was  a  man,  take  him  for  all  in  all,  I  shall  not  look  upon  his  like  again.  11. 
Whatever  is  is  right.  12.  Where  heaves  the  turf  in  many  a  mouldering  heap. 
13.  We  all  rejoiced  at  his  success.  14.  The  ship  struck  on  a  rock.  15.  I  struck 
myself  with  a  hammer.  16.  He  struck  the  ball  hard.  17.  He  has  not  shaved 
this  morning.  18.  The  barber  shaved  me  yesterday.  19.  Get  your  umbrella. 
20.  Get  out  of  my  way.  21.  I  withdraw  my  claim.  22.  The  deputation  with- 
drew. 23.  Every  one  laughed.  24.  They  laughed  him  to  scorn.  25.  He  ran  a 
race.  26.  He  ran  a  thorn  into  his  finger.  27.  Keep  where  you  are.  28.  Keep 
your  place.  29.  He  roused  up  at  the  sound.  30.  He  launched  out  into  all  sorts 
of  extravagance.  31.  The  horsemen  spread  over  the  plain. 


52  ETYMOLOGY. 


III.  YERBALS. — INFINITIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

NOTE.— Before  proceeding  to  consider  the  grammatical  forms  of  the 
verb,  it  will  be  convenient  to  notice  two  kinds  of  verb-like  words,  or 
verbals,  which  are  much  used  in  the  formation  of  the  English  verb. 

97,  The  verbals  are  verb-forms,  partaking  of  the  nature 
of  the  verb,  and  having  in  addition  the  use  of  some  other 
part  of  speech. 

98.  The  verbals  are  of  two  kinds:  I.  INFINITIVES.     II. 
PARTICIPLES. 


I.  Infinitives. 

99,  The  infinitive  is  a  verbal  noun.    It  merely  names  the 
action  or  state  which  the  verb  asserts :  as,  to  read,  reading. 

100,  There  are  two  simple  forms  of  the  infinitive : 

1.  The  verb  in  its  simplest  form,  and  generally  preceded 
by  the  preposition  to :  as,  to  walk,  to  run. 

2.  The  infinitive  in  ing,  called  the  gerund. 

I.  "  Infinitive  "  signifies  unlimited  —  that  is,  unlimited  by  person 
and  number,  and  hence  incapable  of  predication.    In  contrast 
with  the  infinitive  a  verb-word  that  expresses  predication  is 
called  &  finite  verb,  i.  e.,  one  limited  by  person  and  number. 

II.  The  infinitive  is  often  spoken  of  as  a  mood,  but  this  is  to  imply 
that  the  infinitive  is,  in  the  full  sense,  a  verb,  which  it  is  not ;  for 
it  lacks  the  distinguishing  mark  of  a  verb,  namely,  the  function 
of  asserting.    The  infinitive  has,  indeed,  some  of  the  properties 
of  the  verb — for  example,  it  may  take  an  object :  as,  "  To  read 
good  ~books  is  profitable  " — but  its  principal  use  is  as  a  noun. 

'  III.  It  is  the  usual  practice  to  employ  the  infinitive  with  the  prefix 
to  in  order  to  designate  any  particular  verb.  Thus  the  word 
which  asserts  the  action  writing  is  called  the  verb  to  write ;  the 
word  which  asserts  being  is  called  the  verb  to  be.  By  this  it  is 
not  to  be  understood  that  the  words  to  write,  to  le,  are  them 


THE  VERB.— GRAMMATICAL  FORMS.  53 

selves  verbs,  but  merely  that  they  are  names  of  the  action  or 
state  asserted  by  the  verb. 

IV.  In  form  the  gerund  is  identical  with  the  present  participle, 
but  is  distinguished  from  that  verbal  by  having  the  use  of  a 
noun.  Thus, " I  like  reading"  (—1  like  to  read).  "You  will  be 
rewarded  for  studying  mathematics.'7 

101.  The  root  of  a  verb  is  its  simple  form  as  seen  in  the 
infinitive  without  the  prefix  to :  as,  write,  read,  stand. 

The  term  root -infinitive  will  be  used  to  denote  the  simple  infin- 
itive without  to,  its  so-called  sign*  This  form  is  much  em- 
ployed in  making  the  compound  tenses. 

II.  Participles. 

102.  The  participle  is  a  verbal  adjective.     It  shares  or 
participates  in  the  nature  both  of  the  verb  and  of  the  ad- 
jective: thus — 

1.  The  water  is  running.    "Water  running  through  a  gravelly  soil 

is  clear. 

2.  The  good  are  loved.    Warren  died  loved  by  all. 

103.  There  are  two  participles  formed  by  inflection — the 
present  participle  and  the  past  participle. 

I.  The  present  participle  of  all  verbs  is  formed  by  suffixing  ing 
to  the  root :  as,  walk,  walking  ;  write,  writing. 

II.  The  past  participle  is  generally  formed  by  suffixing  ed  to  the 
root :  as,  walk,  walked.    But  some  verbs  do  not  form  their  past 
participle  in  this  way :  as,  write,  written  ;  tell,  told.     Such  verbs 
are  called  irregular  (see  §  141). 


IV.  GRAMMATICAL    FORMS   OFTHE   VERB. 

104,  The  grammatical  forms  of  the  verb  are :  I.  VOICE. 
II.  MOOD.     III.  TENSE.     IV.  PERSON.     V.  NUMBER. 

*  For  the  origin  of  the  infinitive  with  to,  see  Appendix,  page  252. 


54  -ETYMOLOGY. 

105,  How  denoted, — These  forms  are  denoted  in  four 
ways : 

1.  By  inflection:  as,  "Thou  lovely"  "  He  loves;"  "We  loved." 

2.  By  radical  change :  as,  "  She  feZZsy"  "  She  told:9 

3.  By  auxiliaries  :  as,  "  We  have  loved ;"  "  They  will  love." 

4.  By  grammatical  relation;  that  is,  by  reference  to  the  gram- 
matical forms  of  the  subject,vfiih  which  the  verb  agrees.     Thus 
in  the  sentence  "  I  walk,"  the  verb  "  walk  "  is  parsed  as  in  the 
first  person,  singular  number,  because  its  subject  "  I "  is  in  that 
person  and  number;  but  in  "They  walk,"  "walk"  is  parsed  as 
in  the  third  person  plural. 


I.  VOICE. 

106,  Voice  is  a  grammatical  form  of  the  transitive  verb, 
expressing  whether  the  subject  names  the  actor  or  the  re- 
cipient of  the  action. 

There  are  two  voices :  I.  THE  ACTIVE  VOICE.  II.  THE 
PASSIVE  VOICE. 

107,  Active. — A  verb  in  the  active  voice  represents  the 
subject  as  acting  upon  an  object :  as — 

"Watt  invented  the  steam-engine. 

108,  Passive, — A  verb  in  the  passive  voice  represents 
the  subject  as  receiving  an  action :  as — 

The  steam-engine  was  invented  by  Watt. 

The  passive  voice  is  formed  by  uniting  with  the  past 
participle  of  any  transitive  verb  the  various  parts  of  the 
auxiliary  verb  to  be.  Thus — 

I  am  struck.     The  Persians  were  defeated.    They  will  be  seen. 

I.  The  passive  voice  is  a  grammatical  expedient  for  converting 
the  object  of  a  transitive  verb  into  its  subject.  AVhat  in  the 
active  voice  is  represented  as  the  object,  receiving  or  enduring 


THE   VERB.— MOOD.  55 

the  action  expressed  by  the  verb,  becomes  the  subject,  but  is 
still  represented  as  receiving  or  enduring  the  action  expressed 
by  the  verb ;  so  that  in  each  case  the  same  or  nearly  the  same 
meaning  is  conveyed.  Thus — 

(Active) — The  dog  bit  the  man  (or  him). 
(Passive)— Ttie  man  (or  he)  was  bitten  by  the  dog. 

II.  Intransitive  verbs  have,  strictly  speaking,  no  passive  voice; 
for  in  such  verbs  the  action  is  confined  to  the  agent  (subject), 
and  therefore  no  object  is  acted  upon. 

III.  The  English  language  has  no  inflections  for  the  passive  voice, 
which  accordingly  is  denoted  by  composition,  i.  e.,  by  the  use  of 
auxiliaries.     In  some  languages,  such  as  Latin  and  Greek,  voice 
is  denoted  by  distinctive  terminations.     Thus,  Latin  doceo  (act- 
ive) i=I  teach ;  doceor  (passive)  =1  am  taught. 


II.  MOOD. 

109,  Mood  (or  mode)  is  a  grammatical  form  denoting  the 
style  or  manner  of  predication.*     Thus — 

1.  The  earth  revolves  around  the  sun — (assertion  of  a  reality). 

2.  We  may  go  to  Europe  next  year — (assertion  of  a  possibility). 

3.  If  ice  go,  we  will  return  in  the  autumn— (assertion  of  a  condition, 
or  supposition). 

4.  Go  away — (assertion  of  a  command). 

110,  Exclusive  of  the  infinitive,  there  are  four  moods: 
namely — I.  THE  INDICATIVE.    II.  THE  POTENTIAL.    III.  THE 
SUBJUNCTIVE.     IV.  THE  IMPERATIVE. 

111,  The  indicative  mood  is  used  in  the  statement  of  a 
fact,  or  of  a  matter  taken  as  a  fact. 

*  "Mood,"  says  Bain,  "means  the  manner  of  the  action."  This  is  not 
strictly  correct.  The  manner  of  the  action  (or  state)  is  expressed  by  adverbs; 
but  it  is  the  office  of  the  grammatical  form  called  "mood"  to  denote  manner 
of  predication.  The  different  moods  show  the  manner  in  which  the  action  or 
state  expressed  by  the  verb  is  connected  in  thought  with  the  thing  named  by 
the  subject. 


56  ETYMOLOGY, 

I.  The  assertion  may  be  respecting  an  actual  event  past,  present, 
or  future :  as — 

1.  The  Romans  were  victorious. 

2.  You  are  writing  a  letter. 

3.  We  shall  set  out  to-morrow. 

II.  The  assertion  may  be  of  a  supposition  assumed  as  a  fact :  as—- 

If he  did  that  [which  he  did],  he  was  unwise. 

NOTE. — This  conditional  form  of  the  indicative  mood  is  not  to  be  con- 
founded with  the  subjunctive  mood. 

112,  The  potential  mood  is  used  in  the  statement  of 
something  possible,  contingent,  obligatory,  etc. 

The  potential  mood  expresses,  not  what  the  thing  named  by  the 
subject  does  or  is,  but  what  it  may,  might,  can,  could,  must,  would, 
or  should  do  or  ~be :  as — 

1.  James  can  write  a  letter. 

2.  We  may  be  happy  yet. 

3.  Children  should  obey  their  parents. 

113,  The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  in  the  statement  of 
something  merely  thought  of.     Thus — 

1.  If  he  were  here,  he  would  act  differently. 

2.  Though  lie  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in  him. 

•  I.  This  mood  is  called  "  subjunctive,"  because  the  assertion  made 
by  means  of  it  is  always  subjoined  (as  a  condition,  etc.)  to  a  prin- 
cipal statement. 

II.  A  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood  is  generally  (though  not  al- 
ways) preceded  lay  one  of  the  conjunctions,  if,  that,  lest,  though, 
unless,  etc.  But — 

(1)  The  conjunction  is  not  a  part  of  the  mood  itself;  for  an  asser- 
tion may  be  made  subjunctively  by  merely  putting  the  verb  or 
auxiliary  before  the  subject :  thus, "  Were  he"=if  he  were;  "  Had 
he  gone"=if  he  had  gone. 

(2)  The  conjunctions  if,  that,  etc.,  may  precede  the  indicative  mood 
when  the  verb  is  used  to  make  a  supposition  assumed  as  a  fact. 


THE   VERB.— TENSE.  57 

114,  The  imperative  mood  is  used  in  the  statement  of  a 
command  or  request :  thus — 

1.  Charge,  Chester,  charge  ! 

2.  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread. 


III.  TENSE. 

115,  Tense*  is  a  grammatical  form  of  the  verb  denoting 
the  time  of  the  action  or  event  asserted  and  the  degree  of 
its  completeness. 

116,  Primary  Tenses, — There  are  three  divisions  of  time 
to  which  an  action  or  event  may  be  referred — the  present, 
the  past,  and  the  future.     Hence  arise  three  primary  or 
absolute  tenses :  I.  THE  PRESENT.     II.  THE  PAST.     III.  THE 

FUTURE- 

117,  Secondary  Tenses,  —  An  action  or  event  may  be 
spoken   of  as   completed,  or  perfected,  with  reference  to 
each  of  the  three  divisions  of  time.     Hence  arise  three  sec- 
ondary or  relative  tenses :  I.  THE  PRESENT  PERFECT.     II. 

TlIE  PAST  PERFECT.      III.  TlIE  FUTURE  PERFECT. 

The  present  perfect,  past  perfect,  and  future  perfect  tenses  are 
formed  by  prefixing  to  the  past  participle  of  a  given  verb  the 
present,  past,  and  future  tenses  of  the  auxiliary  verb  to  have  in 
the  mood  required. 


IV.  MOODS    WITH    THEIR    TENSES. 

I.  Indicative. 

118,  The  indicative  mood  has  all  the  six  tenses. 


"  Tense"  is  derived  from  Latin  tempus,  time,  through  French  temps. 

C2 


58  ETYMOLOGY. 

119 1  The  present  tense  represents  an  action  or  event  as 
taking  place  in  present  time :  thus— 

I  see  the  flower.     You  smell  its  perfume. 

120.  The  present  perfect  tense  represents  an  action  or 
event  as  completed  at  the  present  time,  or  in  a  period  of 
which  the  present  forms  a  part :  thus — 

1.  I  have  walked  six  miles  to-day. 

2.  He  has  fraught  many  captives  liome  to  Rome. 

121  •  The  past  (sometimes  called  the  preterite)  tense  rep- 
resents that  an  action  or  event  took  place  in  time  wholly 
past:  thus — 

1.  Columbus  discovered  America. 

2.  I  found  her  in  her  room  reading  Plato. 

122,  Formation, — The  past  tense  is  formed  either  by 
inflection  or  by  radical  change. 

I.  Regular  verbs  (see  §  141)  form  their  past  tense  by  the  addition 
of  the  suffix  ed  to  the  root ;  as,  discover,  discovcr-ed.* 

II.  Irregular  verbs  (see  §  141)  form  their  past  tense  in  some  other 
•way;  as,  break,  ~broke ;  find,  found. 

123,  The  past  perfect  tense  represents  a  past  action  or 
event  as  completed  at  or  before  a  certain  past  time :  thus — 

1.  I  had  written  three  letters  before  breakfast  yesterday. 

2.  The  steamer  had  left  when  the  mail  arrived. 

124,  The  future  tense  represents  an  action  or  event  as 
yet  to  take  place:  thus — 

I  will  see  you  again,  and  your  hearts  shall  rejoice. 

*  The  inflection  ed,  used  to  form  the  past  tense  of  all  regular  verbs,  repre- 
sents a  more  primitive  dede^did,  the  past  tense  of  do:  hence,  "I  loved "=I 
\o\Q-did. 


THE   VERB.— MOODS  AND   TENSES.  59 

The  future  tense  is  formed  by  combining  the  auxiliaries 
shall  or  will  with  the  root-infinitive  of  a  given  verb. 

The  auxiliary  verb  "  shall"  is  a  remnant  of  an  ancient  verbal  root, 
meaning  to  owe  ;  "  will "  is  a  tense  form  of  the  verb  to  will,  to  de- 
sire. In  Anglo-Saxon,  ic  sceal  and  ic  wille  were  followed  by  an 
infinitive :  thus,  "  ic  sceal  niman,"  that  is,  literally,  I  owe  to  take; 
"ic  wille  niman,"  Twill  to  take. 

125.  The  future  perfect  tense  represents  that  an  action 
or  event  will  be  completed  at  or  before  a  certain  time  yet 
future:  thus — 

I  shall  have  finished  my  letter  by  noon. 

II.  Potential. 

126.  The  potential  mood  has  four  tenses:  the  present, 
the  present  perfect,  the  past,  and  the  past  perfect. 

These  so-called  "  tenses,"  however,  by  no  means  represent  the  re- 
lations of  time  which  their  names  denote. 

127.  The  present  potential  is  formed  by  joining  the  aux- 
iliaries may,  can,  or  must  with  the  root-infinitive  of  a  given 
Verb. 

I.  This  tense  denotes  the  present  power,  possibility,  liberty,  or  neces- 
sity of  an  action  or  event  either  present  or  future :  as — 

You  may  leave  [now].    It  may  rain  [to-morrow].    The  boy  can  write 
[now].    She  must  go  [now  or  next  week]. 

II.  The  verbs  may,  can,  and  must,  which  are  now  used  merely  as 
auxiliaries  of  the  present  potential,  were  in  early  English  prin- 
cipal or  independent  verbs  in  the  indicative  mood;  and  the 
infinitive  (without  to)  was  dependent  on  them.     Thus :  "  I  may 
walk"r=I  may*  (or  am  able)  to  walk.     "You  canf  write"=You 
are  able  to  write. 


*  Anglo-Saxon,  mcegan,  to  be  able. 

t  Anglo-Saxon,  cunnan,  to  know  how  (and  hence  to  be  able). 


60  ETYMOLOGY. 

128,  The  present  perfect  potential  denotes  present  pos- 
sibility,  liberty,  or  necessity,  with  respect  to  an  action  or 
event  regarded  as  past :  as — 

He  may  have  written=It  is  possible  that  he  wrote  or  has  icritten. 
I  must  have  written  yesterday  =It  is  (now)  a  matter  of  necessity 
that  I  wrote  yesterday. 

129,  The  past  potential  is  formed  by  joining  the  auxil- 
iaries might,  could,  would,  or  should  with  the  root-infinitive 
of  a  given  verb. 

I.  "  Might"  is  the  past  tense  of  may  ;  "  could,"  of  can;  "  would," 
of  will ;  and  "  should,"  of  shall. 

II.  This  tense  expresses  a  variety  of  meanings.    Thus,  it  may  de- 
note— 

1.  A  past  possibility :  as — 

I  could  not  reach  the  train,  for  I  was  delayed  by  the  way. 

2.  A  present  possibility  or  liberty :  as — 

You  might  oblige  me,  if  you  would. 

3.  A  future  contingency :  as — 

I  should  return  next  week,  if  I  were  to  leave  to-day. 

4.  A  customary  past  action :  as — 

There  would  she  sit  and  weep  for  hours. 

5.  A  duty  independent  of  time:  as — 

Children  should  obey  their  parents. 

130,  The  past  perfect  potential  denotes  ability,  possibil- 
ity, or  liberty,  with  respect  to  some  past  action  or  event 
which  (it  is  implied)  was  not  performed  or  did  not  occur : 
as — 

I  could  have  helped  you,  if  you  had  asked  me  [i.  e.,  I  was  able  to 
help  you,  but  (impliedly)  I  did  not,  because  you  did  not  ask  me]. 

III.  Subjunctive. 

131,  The  subjunctive  mood  has  two  tenses:  the  present 
and  the  past. 


THE   VERB.— MOODS  AND   TENSES.  61 

132,  The  present  subjunctive  is  a  simple  tense  having 
the  same  forms  as  the  present  indicative,  except  that  the 
personal  inflections  st  (second  person)  and  S  (third  person) 
are  omitted.*     It  is  usually  introduced  by  the  conjunctions 
if,  though,  that,  etc. 

This  tense  often  has  &  future  reference ;  that  is,  it  denotes  a  present 
uncertainty  respecting  a  supposed  future  action  or  event:  as — 

If  I  go  [=if  I  shall  #o],  I  shall  go  alone. 
Beware  lest  you  fail  [=lest  you  shall  fail]. 

133,  The  past  subjunctive  has  the  same  forms  as  the 
past  indicative,  except  that  the  personal  inflection  st  (sec- 
ond person)  is  omitted. 

The  principal  use  of  this  tense  is  to  express : 

1.  A  supposition  with  respect  to  something  present,  and  at  the 
same  time  to  imply  a  denial  of  the  thing  supposed :  thus — 

If  I  were  rich  [implied :  which  I  am  not],  I  would  give  freely. 
It  is  also  used  to  express  a  wish : 
O  had  I  the  wings  of  a  dove ! 

In  this  construction  the  conjunction  is  omitted  and  the  subject 
follows  the  verb. 

2.  A  consequence :  as — 

If  it  were  done  when  'tis  done,  then  H  were  well 
It  were  done  quickly. 

IV.  Imperative. 

134,  The  imperative  mood  has  only  the  present  tense. 
This  has  respect  to  the  time  of  giving  the  command,  etc. ; 
the  time  of  its  performance  is  necessarily  future. 

V.  Compound  Verbals. 

135,  The  infinitive,  in  addition  to  its  simple  form,  called 
H\Q  present  infinitive  (as,  to  write,  to  walk],  has  a  compound 

*  The  verb  to  be  is  an  exception. 


62  ETYMOLOGY. 

form,  called  the  perfect  infinitive :   as,  to  have  written,  to 
have  walked. 

The  infinitive  present  and  perfect  are  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
tenses;  but  as  the  infinitive  cannot  predicate,  it  can  have  no 
relation  to  any  time  in  particular;  and  the  only  distinction 
between  "  present "  and  "  perfect "  as  applied  to  this  verbal  is 
that  of  the  incompleteness  (indefiniteness)  or  the  completeness  of 
the  action  or  state  named  by  the  infinitive.  Thus — 

(Present  or  indefinite)— HQ  wishes  to  write.    He  wished  to  write.    He  will 
wish  to  write. 

(Perfect) — He  is  said  to  have  written  [already,  yesterday,  a  year  ago,  etc.]. 

136,  The  gerund,  or  infinitive  in  ing,  in  addition  to  its 
simple  form,  has  a  compound  form,  made  up  of  the  gerund 
of  the  verb  to  have  and  the  past  participle  of  a  given  verb. 

(Simple) — I  like  reading. 

(Compound) — Through  having  lost  his  book,  he  could  not  learn  his 
lesson. 

137.  Participles. — Besides  the  present  and  past  partici- 
ples, a  compound  or  perfect  participle  is  formed  by  prefix- 
ing the  present  participle  of  the  auxiliary  to  have  to  the 
past  participle  of  a  given  verb  :  as,  having  walked^  having 
written. 


NOTES  ON  THE  FORMS  IN  -ING. 

I.  Number  of  Forms.  —  The  forms  in  ing  present  some  difficulty 
from  the  "fact  that  this  termination  is  found  in  no  fewer  than  four 
kinds  of  words,  each  of  which,  having  a  distinct  function,  is  a  distinct 
part  of  speech.  These  forms  are — 

1.  The  infinitive  in  ing,  or  gerund,  which  is  a  verbal  noun.    Thus — 
Parting  is  such  sweet  sorrow. 

2.  The  noun  in  ing.     Thus — 

There  came  a  moaning  on  the  wind — the  sighing  of  the  tempest. 


THE  VERB.— NOTES  ON  FORMS  IN  -ING.  £3 

3.  The  participle  in  ing,  which  is  a  verbal  adjective.    Thus — 

Passing  the  Rubicon,  Caesar  advanced  on  Rome. 

4.  The  adjective  in  ing1.*    Thus — 

A  startling  cry  came  from  the  house. 
He  is  a  man  of  striking  appearance. 

II.  Tests. — The  following  tests  will  aid  the  student  in  determining 
to  which  of  these  classes  a  particular  ing  form  belongs : 

a.  The  infinitive  in  ing  (1)  may  be  the  subject  or  the  object  of  a  verb, 
(2)  it  may  take  a  complement  (object,  or  predicate  noun  or  adjective), 
and  (3)  it  may  be  preceded  by  a  possessive  adjective  or  possessive  noun. 

In  (1)  it  resembles  the  noun  in  ing,  and  in  (2)  the  participle ;  but  (3)  in 
connection  with  (2)  is  a  peculiarity  of  the  gerund  alone. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence 

His  making  money  is  no  proof  of  merit, 

"  making "  is  a  gerund :  it  is  the  subject  of  "  is,"  has  for  its  object 
"  money,"  and  is  preceded  by  the  possessive  adjective  "  his." 

1.  The  noun  in  ing  (!)  has  the  usual  distinguishing  marks  of  the 
noun ;  (2)  it  cannot,  like  the  infinitive  and  the  participle,  take  a  com- 
plement ;  and  (3)  it  may  be  preceded  by  the  article. 

In  (1)  it  differs  wholly  from  the  adjective  and  participle,  and  in  (3)  it, 
differs  from  all  the  other  ing  forms. 


*  The  several  ing  forms  originated  as  follows : 

1.  The  infinitive  in  ing  is  a  corruption  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  infinitive,  which 
in  the  nominative  and  accusative  cases  ended  in  an.    Thus,  writan,  to  write, 
became  writen,  writin,  and  finally  writing.    It  is  probable  that  the  existence  of 
a  class  of  abstract  nouns  in  ing  (see  2  below)  facilitated  the  change  from  in 
to  ing. 

2.  The  noun  in  ing  is  originally  a  modified  form  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  noun 
in  ung :   as,  buildung  (=building),  cleansung  (^cleansing).     In  Anglo-Saxon 
there  was  a  distinct  class  of  nouns  with  this  termination,  and  many  of  our 
nouns  in  ing  are  descendants  of  these.    Many  more,  however,  have  since  been 
formed  from  verbs  on  the  analogy  of  these  nouns. 

3.  The  present  participle  in  Anglo-Saxon  ended  in  ende  or  ande:  as,  lufigende 
=loving,  sayande=sa.ymg.    This  suffix  subsequently  passed  through  the  sev- 
eral stages  and  (or  end),  in,  inge,  and  finally  ing. 

4.  The  adjective  in  ing  is  derived  from  the  present  participle  in  ing.    It  is 
a  participle  that  has  dropped  the  implication  of  time  and  action,  and  retained 
only  its  attributive  meaning.    Thus,  ua  charming  face,"  "a  cunning  boy." 


64:  ETYMOLOGY. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence 

There  came  a  moaning  on  the  wind— the  sighing  of  the  tempest, 
"  moaning  "  is  a  noun :  it  is  the  subject  of  "  came,"  but  it  cannot  take 
an  object,  and  it  is  limited  by  the  article  "a." 

c.  The  participle  in  ing1  (1)  is  an  attributive  word  belonging  to  some 
noun,  and  (2)  it  expresses  action  (or  state)  and  time. 

In  (1)  it  differs  from  all  the  other  ing  forms  save  the  adjective,  but  in  (2) 
it  differs  from  the  adjective,  for  that  part  of  speech  expresses  quality, 
not  action  or  time. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence 

Passing  the  Rubicon,  Caesar  advanced  on  Rome, 

"passing"  is  a  participle,  because  it  is  an  adjunct  of  a  noun  ("Cae- 
sar "),  and  because  it  expresses  action  and  time. 

d.  The  adjective  in  ing  (1)  is  an  attributive  word  belonging  to  some 
noun ;  (2)  it  admits  of  comparison. 

In  (1)  it  resembles  the  participle  only ;  in  (2)  it  differs  from  all  the  other 
ing  forms. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence 

A  man  of  more  striking  appearance  I  never  saw, 

"  striking  "  is  an  adjective :  it  qualifies  "  appearance,"  and,  joined  with 
"  more,"  is  in  the  comparative  degree.* 


V.  NUMBER   AND    PERSON. 

138.  Number  and  person  in  verbs  are  grammatical  forms 
expressing  the  agreement  of  a  verb  with  its  subject. 

139.  There  are  two  numbers  in  verbs — the  singular  and 
the  plural,  corresponding  to  the  numbers  in  nouns :    as, 
"The  man  walks  f  "The  men  walk" 

*  The  examination  given  above  of  the  resemblances  and  differences  in  the 
four  forms  in  ing  is  not  exhaustive  (the  aim  being  merely  to  present  salient 
characteristics  as  tests  in  classification) ;  but  enough  is  stated  to  enable  the 
student  to  deduce  a  complete  exhibit  of  the  points  of  agreement  and  disagree- 
ment. 


THE   VERB.— NUMBER  AND  PERSON.  65 

There  are  three  persons  in  verbs,  corresponding  to  the 
three  persons  of  the  personal  pronouns. 

Person  and  number  in  verbs  are  denoted  almost  wholly 
by  grammatical  relation. 

I.  The  only  inflections  of  person  and  number  are  : 

1.  Est  (or  st)  for  the  second  person  singular  (solemn  and  poetic 
style)  in  the  present  and  past  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood: 
"I  wafife;"  "Thou  walked;"  "Thou  walked." 

2.  Es  (or  s)  for  the  third  person  singular  of  the  indicative  pres- 
ent :  "  She  crosses;"  "  He  walks." 

OBS.—  An  old  termination  th  for  the  third  person,  singular,  present  indic- 
ative (as,  "  He  walked")  is  still  employed  in  the  solemn  or  poetic  style,  but 
is  obsolete  in  common  usage. 

II.  By  the  figure  enallage*  the  second  person  plural  is  in  ordinary 
discourse  substituted  for  the  second  person  singular:  as,  "You 
walk,"  not  "  Thou  walked."    It  is  parsed  as  in  the  second  person 
plural ;  and  when  one  person  only  is  denoted,  the  verb  and  pro- 
noun may  be  called  "  plural  used  for  the  singular." 

III.  The  form  in  st  with  the  pronoun  thou  is  still  used  in  the  solemn 
or  poetic  style.    The  Society  of  Friends,  or  Quakers,  also  employ 
the  singular  number  in  familiar  discourse,  though  generally 
without  the  personal  ending  st:   as,  "What  thou  said;"  "If 
thou  should  come." 

IV.  As  the  imperative  is  the  mood  of  commanding,  and  as  a  com- 
mand must  be  addressed  to  the  person  who  is  to  obey  it,  an 
imperative  verb  can,  strictly  speaking,  be  used  only  in  the  sec- 
ond person.     Thus :  "  Go  [you,  sing,  or  pi.]  to  bed." 

When  we  express  ourwTill  in  connection  with  a  subject  of  the  first 
or  second  person,  we  employ  the  following  substitutes  for  the 
imperative  mood : 

1.  The  subjunctive  mood :  as— 

1.  Confide  we  in  ourselves  alone. 

2.  Laugh  those  that  can,  weep  those  that  may. 

*  Enallage,  a  figure  of  syntax,  is  the  substitution  of  one  part  of  speech,  or 
of  one  grammatical  form,  for  another. 


66  ETYMOLOGY. 

2.  "  Let "  with  an  infinitive :  as — 
Let  us  pray.    Let  him  be  heard. 

The  latter,  however,  are  not  imperative  forms  of  the  verbs  "  pray  M 
and  "hear;"  but  infinitives  used  as  complements  of  the  imper- 
ative "let"  [you]. 


VI.  CONJUGATION. 

140,  Conjugation  is  the  systematic  arrangement  of  a  verb 
according  to  its  various  grammatical  forms. 

141,  There  are  two  conjugations:  I.  THE  REGULAR.     II. 
THE  IRREGULAR.     These  two  conjugations  are  distinguished 
by  the  mode  of  forming  the  past  tense  (indicative)  and  the 
past  participle. 

I.  A  regular  verb  is  one  whose  past  tense  and  past  participle 
are  formed  by  suffixing  ed  to  its  root:*  as,  (root)  lave;  (past 
tense)  loved;  (past  participle)  loved. 

OBS. — In  suffixing  ed  care  must  be  taken  to  observe  the  rules  for  spelling 
derivative  words. 

II.  An  irregular  verbf  is  one  whose  past  tense  or  past  participle, 
or  both,  are  not  formed  by  suffixing  ed  to  the  root :  as,  (root) 
take;  (past  tense)  took;  (past  participle)  taken 

142,  The  principal  parts  of  a  verb  are:  I.  The  tense 
form  of  the  PRESENT  INDICATIVE.     II.  The  tense  form  of 

the  PAST  INDICATIVE.       III.  TlIE  PAST  PARTICIPLE. 


*  It  would  be  more  accurate  to  consider  d,  rather  than  ed,  as  the  inflection 
of  the  past  tense,  since  either  d  alone  is  added  to  the  root  (as  in  love-d,  save~d), 
or  when  ed  is  used  the  c  is  a  mere  connecting  vowel  of  euphony. 

t  A  verb  is  called  u  irregular,"  not  because  in  the  formation  of  its  past  tense 
and  its  past  participle  it  presents  any  arbitrary  departure  from  a  supposed 
regular  or  normal  method,  but  because  in  the  irregular  conjugation  the  vari- 
ous methods  of  forming  these  parts  are  not  reducible  to  one  rule. 


THE   VERB.— CONJUGATION. 


67 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  AUXILIARY  VERBS. 

143,  The  auxiliary  verbs  are:  ~be,  do,  have,  shall,  will, 
can,  may,  and  must. 

I.  Be,  do,  will,  and  have,  besides  being  used  as  auxiliaries,  are  also 
principal  verbs,  and  as  such  have  the  full  conjugation.    The 
parts  given  below  are  those  only  that  are  used  as  auxiliaries. 

II.  Shall,  may,  can,  and  must  are  auxiliary  verbs  only,  and  are  de- 
fective. 

III.  The  only  tenses  that  do  not  require  the  aid  of  an  auxiliary  in 
their  formation  are :  in  the  active  voice,  the  present  and  past  of 
the  indicative  and  of  the  subjunctive,  and  the  imperative  mood. 
The  passive  voice  is  formed  wholly  by  aid  of  the  auxiliary  to  le. 


TO   BE. 
AUXILIARY  OF  THE  PASSIVE  VOICE  AND   OP  THE  PROGRESSIVE  FORM.* 


Present — am. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I  am, 

2.  Thou  art, 

3.  He  is ; 


1 .  I  was, 

2.  Thou  wast,t 

3.  He  was : 


PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Past — was.  Past  Participle — been.f 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

PLUKAL. 

1.  We  are, 

2.  You  are, 

3.  They  are. 


Past  Terse. 


1 .  We  were, 

2.  You  were, 

3.  They  were. 


*  See  §  145. 

t  The  forms  of  the  verb  to  be  are  derived  from  at  least  two  sources :  am, 
was,  were,  etc.,  are  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  wcsan,  to  be;  be,  been,  etc.,  are  from 
Anglo-Saxon  beon,  to  be. 

I  Wert  is  sometimes  used  indicatively  for  wast. 


68 


ETYMOLOGY. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  be  ; 


Future  Tense. 

PLURAL. 

1 .  We  shall  or  will  be, 

2.  You  shall  or  will  be, 

3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 


1.  I  have  been, 

2.  Thou  hast  been, 

3.  He  has  been  ; 

1.  I  had  been, 

2.  Thou  hadst  been, 

3.  He  had  been ; 


Present  Perfect   Tense. 

1.  We  have  been, 

2.  You  have  been, 

3.  They  have  been. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  We  had  been, 

2.  You  had  been, 

3.  They  had  been. 

Future  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  been,  1.  We  shall  or  will  have  been, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,         2.  You  shall  or  will  have  been, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  been  ;  3.  They  shall  or  will  have  been. 

POTENTIAL   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  We  may  be, 

2.  You  may  be, 

3.  They  may  be. 

Past  Tense. 

1.  We  might  be, 

2.  You  might  be, 

3.  They  might  be. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  may  have  been,  1.  We  may  have  been, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  been,  2.  You  may  have  been, 

3.  He  may  have  been ;  3.  They  may  have  been. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  might  have  been,  1.  We  might  bave  been, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  been,  2.  You  might  have  been, 

3.  He  might  have  been  ;  3.  They  might  have  been. 


1.  I  may  be, 

2.  Thou  mayst  be, 

3.  He  may  be ; 

1.  I  might  be, 

2.  Thou  mightst  be, 

3.  He  might  be ; 


Present  Tense. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 


Past  Tense. 


SINGULAR. 

1.  If  I  be, 

2.  If  thou  be, 

3.  If  he  be; 


PLURAL. 

1 .  If  we  be, 

2.  If  you  be, 

3.  If  they  be. 


SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  If  I  were,  1.  If  we  were, 

2.  If  thou  were,  2.  If  you  were, 

3.  If  he  were ;  3.  If  they  were. 


THE  VERB.— CONJUGATION.  69 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Be  (you  —  thou,  ye). 

INFINITIVES. 

Present — to  be.       Perfect — to  have  been.       {Gerunds) — being ;  having  been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present — being.  Past — been.  Perfect— having  been. 


TO    DO. 

Present: — Sign  of  the"Present  Emphatic  and  Interrogative.* 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  do,  1.  We  do, 

2.  Thou  dost,  2.  You  do, 

3.  He  does  ;  3.  They  do. 

Past : — Sign  of  the.  Past  Emphatic  and  Interrogative. 

1.  I  did,  1.  We  did, 

2.  Thou  didst,  2.  You  did, 

3.  He  did  ;  3.  They  did. 

When  used  as  a  principal  verb  : — PRINCIPAL  PARTS  :  present,  do  ;  past,  did ; 
past  participle,  done.  INFINITIVES:  present,  to  do;  perfect,  to  have  done; 
(gerunds)  doing  ;  having  done.  PARTICIPLES  :  present,  doing ;  past,  done ; 
perfect,  having  done.f  

TO    HAVE. 

Present: — Sign  of  the  Present  Perfect  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  have,  1.  We  have, 

2.  Thou  hast,  2.  You  have, 

3.  He  has  ;  3.  They  have. 

Past  :—Sign  of  the  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  had,  1.  We  had, 

2.  Thou  hadst,  2.  You  had, 

3.  He  had  ;  3.  They  had. 

*  See  §§  146, 147. 

t  Do,  as  used  in  the  expression,  How  do  you  do?  is  a  totally  different  verb : 
this  "do"  comes  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  dugan,  to  profit  or  prosper. 
Hence,  How  do  you  do?  means,  How  do  you  prosper  ?  That  will  cfo=That  will 
prosper  or  succeed. 


70  ETYMOLOGY. 

When  used  as  a  principal  verb :— PRINCIPAL  PARTS  :  present,  have;  past,  had ; 
past  participle,  had.  INFINITIVES  :  present,  to  have ;  perfect,  to  have  had ; 
(gerunds)  having ;  having  had.  PARTICIPLES  :  present,  having  ;  past,  had  ;  per- 
fect, having  had.  

CAN. 

Present: — Sign  of  the  Potential  Present. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  can,  1.  We  can, 

2.  Thou  canst,  2.  You  can, 

3.  He  can  ;  3.  They  can. 

Past : — Sign  of  the  Potential  Past. 

1.  I  could,*  1.  We  could, 

2.  Thou  couldst,  2.  You  could, 

3.  He  could  ;  3.  They  could. 


MAY. 

Present: — Sign  of  the  Potential  Present. 

1.  I  may,  1.  We  may, 

2.  Thou  mayst,  2.  You  may, 

3.  He  may  ;  3.  They  may. 

Past  :—Slgn  of  the  Potential  Past. 

1.  I  mi^h%  1.  We  might, 

2.  Thou  mightst,  2.  You  might, 

3.  He  might ;  3.  They  might. 


SHALL. 

Present: — Sign  of  the  Future  Tense. 

1.  I  shall,  1.  We  shall, 

2.  Thou  shalt,  2.  You  shall, 

3.  He  shall ;  3.  They  shall. 

Past: — Sign  of  the  Potential  Past. 

1.  I  should,  1.  We  should, 

2.  Thou  shouldst,  2.  You  should, 

3.  He  should ;  3.  They  should. 

*  "  Could'7  is  the  past  tense  of  can.    The  I  is  inserted  in  could  in  imitation 
of  would  and  should,  but  it  is  a  false  analogy.    The  old  form  is  coude. 


THE   VERB.-CONJUGATION.  71 


WILL. 

Present : — Sign  of  the  Future  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  will,  1.  We  will, 

2.  Thou  wilt,  2.  You  will, 

3.  He  will ;  3.  They  will. 

Past : — Sign  of  the  Potential  Past. 

1.  I  would,  1.  We  would, 

2.  Thou  wouldst,  2.  You  would, 

3.  He  would  ;  3.  They  would. 

When  used  as  a  principal  verb : — PRINCIPAL  PARTS  :  present,  will ;  past, 
willed ;  past  participle,  willed.  INFINITIVES  :  present,  to  will ;  perfect,  to 
have  willed ;  (gerunds)  willing ;  having  willed.  PARTICIPLES  :  present,  willing ; 
past,  willed ;  perfect,  having  willed. 


MUST. 

Present : — Sign  of  the  Potential  Present. 

1.  I  must,  1.  We  must, 

2.  Thou  must,  2.  You  must, 

3.  He  must ;  3.  They  must. 


PARADIGM*  OF  THE  REGULAR  VERBS. 

TO     LOVE. 

Active  Voice. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Present— love.  Past — loved.  Past  participle — loved. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  TLURAT,. 

1.  I  love,  1.  We  love, 

2.  Thou  lovest,  2.  You  love, 

3.  He  loves ;  3.  They  love. 

*  A  paradigm  is  the  full  conjugation  of  a  verb. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


Past  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  I  loved,  1.  We  loved, 

2.  Thou  lovedst,  2.  You  loved, 

3.  He  loved  ;  3.  They  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  love,  1.  We  shall  or  will  love, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,  2.  You  shall  or  will  love, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  love ;  3.  They  shall  or  will  love. 

Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  have  loved,  1.  We  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  hast  loved,  2.  You  have  loved, 

3.  He  has  loved ;  3.  They  have  loved. 


1.  I  had  loved, 

2.  Thou  hadst  loved, 

3.  He  had  loved  ; 


Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  We  had  loved, 

2.  You  had  loved, 

3.  They  had  loved. 


Future  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have  loved,  1.  We  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,         2.  You  shall  or  will  have  loved, 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have  loved  ;          3.  They  shall  or  will  have  loved. 


1.  I  may  love, 

2.  Thou  mayst  love, 

3.  He  may  love ; 

1 .  I  might  love, 

2.  Thou  mightst  love, 

3.  He  might  love ; 


POTENTIAL  MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

1.  We  may  love, 

2.  You  may  love, 

3.  They  may  love. 

Past  Tense. 

1.  We  might  love, 

2.  You  might  love, 

3.  They  might  love. 


Present  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  may  have  loved,  1.  We  may  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mayst  have  loved,  2.  You  may  have  loved, 

3.  He  may  have  loved  ;  3.  They  may  have  loved. 

Past  Perfect  Tense. 

1.  I  might  have  loved,  1.  We  might  have  loved, 

2.  Thou  mightst  have  loved,  2.  You  might  have  loved, 

3.  He  might  have  loved  ;  3.  They  might  have  loved. 


THE  VERB.— CONJUGATION. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

1.  If  I  love,  1.  If  we  love, 

2.  If  thou  love,  2.  If  you  love, 

3.  If  he  love  ;  3.  If  they  love. 


73 


Past  Tense. 


1.  If  I  loved, 

2.  If  thou  loved, 

3.  If  he  loved; 


1.  If  we  loved, 

2.  If  you  loved, 

3.  If  they  loved. 


IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Love  (you  —  thou,  ye). 

INFINITIVES. 

Present— iQ  love.     Perfect — to  have  loved.     (Gerunds) — loving;  having  loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present — loving.  Perfect — having  loved. 


TO    BE    LOVED. 

Passive  Toice. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 


Present  Tense. 

Past  Tense.                         Future  Tense. 

I  am 

I  was 

I  shall  or  will 

Thou  art 

Thou  wast 

Thou  shalt  or  wilt 

He  is 

loved. 

He  was 

>  loved.          He  sha11  or  wil1 

be  loved. 

We  are 

We  were 

We  shall  or  will 

You  are 

You  were 

You  shall  or  will 

They  are  - 

They  were  . 

They  shall  or  will  . 

Present  Perfect. 

Past  Perfect*                          Future  Perfect. 

I  have 

I  had 

I  shall  or  will 

Thou  hast 

Thou  hadst 

Thou  shalt  or  wilt 

He  has 

been 

He  had 

been            He  shall  or  will 

have 

We  have 

loved. 

We  had 

loved.           We  shall  or  will 

y  been 

You  have 

You  had 

You  shall  or  will 

loved. 

They  have 

They  had     , 

They  shall  or  will  > 

D 


Present. 
I  may  or  can 
Thou  mayst  or  canst 
He  may  or  can 
We  may  or  can 
You  may  or  can 
They  may  or  can 

Present  Perfect. 
I  may,  etc. ,  have 
Thou  mayst,  etc.,  have 
He  may,          "      " 
We  may,          "       " 
You  may,        "       " 
They  may,       "       " 


ETYMOLOGY. 


POTENTIAL   MOOD. 


be  loved. 


been  loved. 


Past. 

I  might,  etc., 
Thou  mightst,  etc., 
He  might,  " 

We  might,  " 
You  might,  " 
They  might,  " 

Past  Perfect. 
I  might,  etc.,  have 
Thou  mightst,  etc. ,  have 
He  might,          "      " 
We  might,         "      " 
You  might,        "       " 
They  might,      "      " 


be  loved. 


been  loved. 


Present. 
If  I  be 
If  thou  be 
If  he      " 
If  we     " 
If  you    ". 
If  they  " 


Present  —  to  be  loved. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 


loved. 


Past. 
If  I  were 
If  thou  were 
If  he 

If  we  " 
If  you  " 
If  they  " 

IMPERATIVE   MOOD. 

Be  (you — thou,  ye)  loved. 

INFINITIVES. 

Perfect  —  to  have  been  loved, 
loved ;  having  been  loved. 


loved. 


(Gerunds)  —  being 


PARTICIPLES. 

Present  —  being  loved.     Past  —  loved.     Perfect  —  having  been  loved. 


MODEL  OP  CONJUGATION  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

NOTE. — The  mode  of  formation  of  the  compound  parts  of  an  ir- 
regular verb  is  precisely  the  same  as  that  of  a  regular  verb ;  but  the 
irregularity  of  the  past  and  past  participle  renders  it  desirable  to 
illustrate  the  paradigm  of  the  verb,  and  to  practise  pupils  therein. 


THE  VERB.— CONJUGATION  OF  IRREGULAR   VERBS.         75 

TO     SEE. 

Active  Voice. 

PRINCIPAL   PARTS. 

Present — see.  Past — saw.  Past  Participle—  seen. 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  VERB  "To  SEE"  IN  THE  THIRD  PERSON  SINGULAR 

OF   ALL   THE   MOODS   AND   TENSES   IN  THE   ACTIVE  VOICE. 

Indicative He  sees,  he  saw,  he  shall  or  will  see,  he  has  seen,  he  had  seen, 

he  shall  or  will  have  seen. 

Potential He  may  see,  he  might  see,  he  may  have  seen,  he  might  have  seen. 

Subjunctive... If  he  see,  if  he  saw. 
Imperative.... See  (y°u — tnou»  ve)- 

SYNOPSIS  OF  THE  VERB  "To  SEE"  IN  THE  FIRST  PERSON  PLURAL  OP 

ALL   THE   MOODS   AND  TENSES   IN   THE   PASSIVE  VOICE. 

Indicative We  are  seen,  we  were  seen,  we  shall  or  will  be  seen,  we  have  been 

seen,  we  had  been  seen,  we  shall  or  will  have  been  seen. 

Potential We  may  be  seen,  we  might  be  seen,  we  may  have  been  seen,  we 

might  have  been  seen. 

Subjunctive... If  we  be  seen,  if  we  were  seen. 

Imperative.... HQ  (you — thou,  ye)  seen. 


FORMS  OF  CONJUGATION. 

144,  Besides   the    common   style    of   the   verb,  several 
special  modes  of  conjugation  are  used  to  express  particular 
meanings.    The  principal  of  these  are :  (1)  THE  PROGRESSIVE. 
(2)  THE  EMPHATIC.     (3)  THE  INTERROGATIVE. 

I.  Progressive  Form. 

145,  The  progressive  form  of  a  verb  is  that  which  rep- 
resents the  continuance  of  the  action  or  state  asserted  by 
the  verb :  as,  " I  am  writing /"    " He  was  sleeping" 

The  progressive  form  of  a  verb  is  made  by  combining  its  present 
participle  with  the  variations  of  the  auxiliary  verb  to  le. 


76  ETYMOLOGY. 

TO    LEARN. 
In  the  Progressive  Form. 

INDICATIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense 1.  I  am  learning.     2.  Thou  art  learning.     3.  He  is  learn- 
ing ;  etc. 
Past  Tense 1.  I  was  learning.      2.  Thou  wast  learning.      3.  He  was 

learning ;  etc. 
Future  Tense 1.  I  shall  or  will  be  learning.     2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  be 

learning.     3.  He  shall  or  will  be  learning ;  etc. 
Present  Perfect. ..I.  I  have  been  learning.    2.  Thou  hast  been  learning.    3.  He 

has  been  learning ;  etc. 
Past  Perfect 1.  I  had  been   learning.      2.  Thou   hadst  been   learning. 

3.  He  had  been  learning;  etc. 
Future  Perfect....!.  I  shall  or  will  have  been  learning.     2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt 

have  been  learning.     3.  He  shall  or  will  have  been 

learning;  etc. 

POTENTIAL    MOOD. 

Present  Tense 1.  I  may  be  learning.     2.  Thou  mayst  be  learning.     3.  Ho 

may  be  learning ;  etc. 
Past  Tense 1.  I  might  be  learning.     2.  Thou  mightst  be  learning.    3.  He 

might  be  learning ;  etc. 
Present  Perfect... I.  I  may  have  been  learning.     2.  Thou  mayst  have  been 

learning.     3.  He  may  have  been  learning;  etc. 
Past  Perfect 1.  I  might  have  been  learning.     2.  Thou  mightst  have  been 

learning.     3.  He  might  have  been  learning ;  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD. 

Present  Tense 1.  If  I  be  learning.     2.  If  thou  be  learning.     3.  If  he  be 

learning;  etc. 
Past  Tense 1.  If  I  were  learning.     2.  If  thou  were  learning.     3.  If  he 

were  learning ;  etc. 

IMPERATIVE    MOOD. 

Present  Tense 2.  Be  learning,  or  do  be  learning;  etc. 

INFINITIVES. 

Present To  be  learning.     Perfect — To  have  been  learning.     (Ger- 
und)— Being  learning.* 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present Being  learning.*     Past — Been  learning.     Perfect — Having 

been  learning. 

*  Theoretical  forms  not  used. 


THE   VERB.— NOTES  ON  THE  PROGRESSIVE  PASSIVE.       77 

NOTES  ON  THE  PROGRESSIVE  PASSIVE. 

I.  A  progressive  form  for  the  passive  voice,  in  the  present  and  past 
tenses  indicative,  is  made  by  joining  the  present  and  past  tenses  in- 
dicative of  the  verb  to  be  with  the  present  passive  participle :  as — 

The  house  is  being  built.    The  book  was  being  printed. 
These  are  two  tenses  selected  from  the  various  tense-combinations 
which  might  be  made  by  uniting  the  variations  of  the  verb  to  be  with 
the  present  passive  participle.*    These  two  alone  are  used,  because  the 
other  verb-phrases  are  intolerably  harsh :  thus, "  He  shall  le  being  loved" 

II.  An  old  mode  of  forming  the  progressive  passive  is  illustrated  in 
the  phrases — 

The  house  is  building.    The  book  is  printing. 

This  method  of  combination,  which  consists  in  the  union  of  the 
verb  to  be  and  the  gerund  of  a  given  verb,  is  now  little  used. 

III.  It  is  important  to  understand  the  real  character  of  such  forms 
as  "  building,"  "  printing,"  in  the  phrases  given  above,  as  these  forms 
have  sometimes  been  mistaken  for  the  "  present  participle  used  in  a  pas- 
sive sense."    In  early  English  these  forms  were  written  "  a-building," 
"  a-printing :"  as — 

Forty-six  years  was  this  temple  dbuildinge" — Tyndale. 

The  particle  "a"  in  "a-building"  is  a  contracted  form  of  the  An- 
glo-Saxon preposition  an— on  or  in :  hence,  "  a-building  "— m  building. 
From  this  analysis  it  becomes  manifest  that  the  form  "  building "  is 
not  the  present  participle,  but  the  gerund. 

It  results  that  the  mode  of  expression  exemplified  in  "  The  house  is, 
was,  will  be  building  "  (if  regarded  as  elliptical  for  "  The  house  is,  etc., 
a-building"),  is  perfectly  grammatical.  It  is  good  native  English,  and 
is  preferable  to  the  combination  "  The  house  is  being  built ;"  and  on 
these  grounds  it  is  a  loss  that  this  form,  under  an  erroneous  notion  of 
its  origin,  is  now  all  but  obsolete. 

*  These  two  tense  forms  are  of  comparatively  recent  introduction  (they 
came  into  use  less  than  .a  century  ago),  and  by  some  are  deemed  bad  English. 
They  are,  however,  freely  used  by  many  of  the  best  writers,  and  may  be  regard- 
ed as  established. 


78  ETYMOLOGY. 

II.  Emphatic  Form. 

146,  The  emphatic  form  of  a  verb  is  made  by  joining  do 
and  did  with  the  infinitive  (without  to) :  as,  "  I  do  learn." 
"  I  did  learn." 

This  combination  is  found  only  in  the  present  and  the 
past  indicative  (active),  and  in  the  imperative. 

Present. — I  clo  learn,  thou  dost  learn,  he  does  learn,  etc. 
Past. — I  did  learn,  thou  didst  learn,  he  did  learn,  etc. 
Imperative. — Do  learn. 

III.  Interrogative  Form. 

147,  The  interrogative  form  is  that  which  is  used  in  ask- 
ing a  question :  as,  "  Can  he  see  ?"  "  Shall  he  be  punished  ?" 

This  form  is  used  in  the  indicative  and  potential  moods. 

I.  A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively  by  (1)  placing  the  subject 
after  the  verb :  as,  "  Hearest  thou  ?"  or  (2)  by  placing  the  subject 
between  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb ;  as,  "  May  we  go?"  or  (3)  by 
placing  the  subject  after  the  first  auxiliary  when  two  or  more 
auxiliaries  are  used :  as,  "  Could  he  have  called  ?" 

II.  In  common  usage,  the  present  and  the  past  of  the  indicative 
mood  are  rendered  interrogative  by  the  use  of  do  and  did,  with 
the  subject  following :  as,  "  Do  you  hear  ?"     "  Did  you  hear  ?" 


TO   SEE. 
IN   THE   INTERROGATIVE   FORM. 

ActiTC  Voice. 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. — See  I,  or  do  I  see?    Saw  I,  or  did  I  see?    Shall  or 
will  I  see?    Have  I  seen  ?    Had  I  seen ?     Shall  or  will  I  have  seen  ? 

POTENTIAL. — May  I  see?     Might  I  see?     May  I  have  seen?     Might  I 

have  seen  ? 

Passive  Voice. 

,     INDICATIVE  MOOD. — Am  I  seen?    Was  I  seen?    Shall  I  be  seen?    Have 
I  been  seen  ?    Had  I  been  seen  ?    Shall  or  will  I  have  been  seen  ? 

POTENTIAL. — May  I  be  seen?    Might  I  be  seen ?     May  I  have  been  seen ? 
Might  I  have  been  seen  ? 


THE   VERB.— MODE  OF  NEGATION.  79 

148,  Mode  of  Negation, — A  verb  is  conjugated  negatively 
by  placing  the  adverb  not  immediately  after  it,  or  after  the 
first  auxiliary:    as,  "They  come  not;"   or  "They  do  not 
come /"  uHe  cannot  return;"  "  They  will  not  be  governed." 

I.  The  negative  not,  however,  precedes  the  participles  and  the  in- 
finitives :  as,  not  being  loved  ;  not  to  see  ;  (gerund)  not  seeing. 

II.  A  verb  is  conjugated  interrogatively  and  negatively  by  placing 
the  subject  followed  by  not  immediately  after  the  verb,  or  after 
the  first  auxiliary :  as,  "  Comes  he  not  ?"  or,  "  Does  he  not  come .?" 
"Might  he  not  improve?"    The  negative-interrogative  form  is 
used  only  in  the  indicative  and  potential  moods. 

OBS.—  There  is  another  mode  of  placing  the  negative :  thus,  "  Do  not  I 
move ?"  contracted  into  "  Don't  I  move  ?"  The  following  distinction  exists : 
if  the  negative  is  before  "I,"  the  phrase  is  conversational  or  familiar :  as,  " Do 
not  I  move?"  or  "Don't  I  move?"  if  the  negative  is  after  "I,"  the  phrase  is 
energetic  or  emphatic :  as,  u Do  I  not  move?" 

III.  The  progressive  form  also  may  be  conjugated  negatively  and 
interrogatively  :  as,  "  I  am  not  writing;"  "Might  they  not  have 
been  sleeping?"  etc. 

VERBS — DEFECTIVE,  TJNIPEESONAL,  AND    EEDTJNDANT. 

149,  A  defective  verb  is  one  that  lacks  one  or  more  of  its 
principal  parts.     The  defective  verbs  are — 

1.  Can,  may,  sliall,  will  (with  their  variations),  and  must,  already 
treated  as  auxiliaries. 

2.  Ought,  "beware. 

OBS.— Ought  is  the  proper  past  tense  of  owe;  but  "I  ought,"  "he  ought," 
etc.,  have  come  to  be  used  independently  (and  like  must,  without  distinctions 
of  person,  number,  or  tense),  with  the  meaning,  "It  is  my  duty"  (what  is  due 
by  me) ;  "  It  is  his  duty,"  etc.  The  regular  past  of  owe  is  owed. 

150,  A  unipersonal  verb  is  a  verb  used  in  but  one  per- 
son, namely,  the  third  person  singular.* 

Of  unipersonal  verbs  there  are  two  kinds : 

*  Sometimes  these  are  called  impersonal,  as  though  they  had  no  person ; 
but  wmpersonal  is  a  more  appropriate  term. 


80  ETYMOLOGY. 

1.  Those  asserting  natural  phenomena :  as,  "  It  rains ;"  "  It  will 
rain;"  "It  snows." 

2.  The  forms  "  niethinks,"  "  methought."      "  Methinks  "  is  com- 
posed of  "  me  "  (i.  e.,  to  me),  the  indirect  object,  and  "  thinks," 
meaning  seems.     The  subject  of  the  verb  "  thinks  "  is  the  clause 
following:  as,  "Methinks  [that]  I  hear  a  00/00"= "That  I  hear 
a  voice  seems  to  me,"  or  "It  seems  to  me  that  I  hear  a  voice" 

OBS. — "Thinks"  is  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  verb  thincan,  to  seem,  or  ap- 
pear, not  from  our  common  verb  to  think. 

151,  A  redundant  verb  is  one  that  presents  double  forms 
of  the  past  tense   or  past  participle,  or  both :    as,  sang, 
sung ;  got,  gotten. 

IRREGULAR   VERBS. 

152,  In  the  Appendix  (page  244)  will  be  found  a  list  of 
about  two  hundred  irregular  verbs — comprising  all  that  be- 
long to  this  class,  except  a  few  compounds. 

Verbs  belonging,  in  the  strict  sense,  to  the  irregular  (old,  or  strong) 
conjugation  may  be  subdivided  into  the  following  classes : 

CLASS  1. — Root-vowel  modified  for  past,  and  en  or  n  added  for  participle: 

as— 

Root.  Past.  Participle. 

break  broke  broken 

give  gave  given 

draw  drew  drawn 

CLASS  2.— Root- vowel  modified  for  past,  and  no  suffix  in  participle :  as— 

Root.  Past.  Participle. 

begin  began  begun 

find  found  found 

stand  stood  stood 

CLASS  3.— Regular  in  past ;  irregular  in  participle:  as— 

Root.  Past.  Participle. 

lade  laded  laden 

show  showed  shown 


THE  VERB,— REVIEW. 


81 


Classes. 


Gram.  Forms. 


GENERAL  REVIEW   OF  THE  VERB. 

A. 
TABLE   FOR  BLACKBOARD. 

TRANSITIVE. 
INTRANSITIVE. 


f 


( 
! 


Indicative. 

,r  Potential. 

MooD  ............  1  Subjunctive. 

[  Imperative. 

Present  —  Present  perfect. 
TENSE  ...........  -I  Past  —  Past  perfect. 

Future  —  Future  perfect. 

Firgt 

PERSON  .........  •{  Second. 

Third. 


Infinitive.... 


VEEBALS 


Infinitive  ..... 


I  >s         -,          (  Present. 
Gerund  .......  }  Perfect. 


I  Participle.... 


Present. 

Past. 

Perfect. 


^    .     A. 

CoDjugation. 


REGULAB. 
IRREGULAR> 

-s  (or  -es)  .....  present  indicative,  third  singular. 

-st  (or  -est)...  present  indicative,  second  singular. 
-ed  ..............  past  indicative  and  subj.  and  past  part. 

-ing  .............  present  participle  and  gerund. 


B. 

TOPICAL  ANALYSIS. 
I.  Definition  of  Yerb. 

1.  PREDICATION. 

2.  SUBJECT. 

3.  DISTINGUISHING  MARKS  OF  THE  VERB. 

r>  9, 


2  ETYMOLOGY. 

II.  Classes  of  Verbs. 

1.  TRANSITIVE  DEFINED. 

a.  Complement. 
I.  Object. 

2.  INTRANSITIVE  DEFINED. 

Characteristics. 

3.  VERBS  OF  DOUBLE  USE. 

4.  AUXILIARIES. 

III.  Verbals. 

1.  INFINITIVES. 

a.  Infinitive  defined. 
I.  Simple  infinitive. 
c.  Gerund. 

2.  PARTICIPLES. 

a.  Present — how  formed. 
2>.  Past — how  formed. 
c.  Root. 

IV.  Grammatical  Forms  of  the  Verb. 

1.  VOICE   DEFINED. 

a.  Active  defined. 
Z>.  Passive  defined. 

2.  MOOD   DEFINED. 

Number  of  moods. 

3.  TENSE  DEFINED. 

a.  Primary  tenses. 
Z>.  Secondary  tenses. 

c.  Tenses  of  the  indicative. 

d.  Tenses  of  the  potential. 

e.  Tenses  of  the  subjunctive. 
/.  Tenses  of  the  imperative. 

4.  COMPOUND  INFINITIVES  AND  PARTICIPLES. 

a.  Simple  infinitive. 
I.  Compound  infinitive. 

c.  Simple  gerund. 

d.  Compound  gerund. 

e.  Participle  present. 

f.  Participle  past. 

g.  Participle  perfect. 


THE    VERB.— REVIEW.  83 


5.  NUMBER  AND  PERSON. 

a.  Number — singular,  plural. 
~b.  Persons — number  of. 

c.  How  denoted. 

d.  Inflections. 

V.  Conjugation. 

1.  NUMBER  OF  CONJUGATIONS. 

a.  Regular  defined. 
&.  Irregular  defined. 

2.  DEFECTIVE  VERB  DEFINED. 

3.  UNIPERSONAL  VERB  DEFINED. 

4.  REDUNDANT  VERB  DEFINED. 

5.  NUMBERS  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


WRITTEN  REVIEWS. 
I. 

1.  Write  a  sentence,  and  draw  one  line  under  the  subject  and  two 
lines  under  the  verb. 

2.  Define  transitive  verb. 

3.  Write  a  sentence  containing  a  transitive  verb,  a  subject,  and  an 
object. 

4.  Define  intransitive  verb. 

5.  Write  a  sentence  containing  an  intransitive  verb. 

6.  What  kind  of  verbs  can  by  themselves  make   complete   state- 
ments ? 

7.  What  is  meant  by  an  intransitive  verb  of  incomplete  predica- 
tion ?    Illustrate  by  a  sentence. 

8.  Define  verbals,  state  their  two  divisions,  and  give  examples. 

9.  Change  the  following  verbs  from  the  active  to  the  passive  voice, 
preserving  the  full  sense : 

1.  Dr.  Livingstone  has  explored  a  large  part  of  Africa. 

2.  Paul  Revere  carried  to  Lexington  the  news  of  the  intended  attack  by 

the  British. 

3.  The  first  fresh  dawn  awoke  us. 

4.  The  people  of  Lynn  manufacture  great  qiiantities  of  shoes. 

5.  No  one  has  yet  reached  the  North  Pole. 


84  ETYMOLOGY. 

II. 

1.  Enumerate  the  four  inflected  forms  of  the  English  verb,  and  state 
their  use. 

2.  Are  there  in  English  any  inflected  forms  for  the  passive  voice  ? 

3.  Does  "  mood"  denote  manner  of  action  or  manner  of  predication  ? 

4.  Enumerate  the  principal  auxiliaries  of  the  potential  mood. 

5.  What  is  the  original  meaning  of  "  shall  ?" 

6.  What  part  of  the  verb  is  "take"  in  the  verb  -phrase  "I  shall 


7.  What  is  the  original  meaning  of  the  inflection  ed  of  the  past 
tense  ? 

8.  What  differences  of  form  are  there  between  a  verb  in  the  indica- 
tive mood  and  a  verb  in  the  subjunctive  mood  ? 

III. 

1.  Enumerate  the  principal  auxiliary  verbs,  and  state  their  use. 

2.  What  are  the  four  forms  in  ing?    Give  an  example  of  each. 

3.  What  are  the  only  personal  inflections  of  the  English  verb  ? 

4.  Explain  the  term  "  redundant  verb." 

5.  From  how  many  sources  are  the  parts  of  the  verb  to  le  derived  ? 

6.  Write  a  synopsis  of  the  verb  to  walk  in  the  third  person,  singular, 
indicative  mood,  negative-interrogative  form. 

7.  What  is  the  meaning  of  the  second  "  do"  in  "  How  do  you  do?" 

8.  What  rules  of  spelling  apply  in  forming  the  following  derivatives  : 
deceive-\-ed-\-ing  ?   veri/y-\-ed-\-ing  ?  obey  -\-ed-\-ingf  die-\-ed-\-ing  f 

9.  Give  a  written  statement  of  the  grammatical  forms  of  the  verbs 
in  the  following  passage  from  Milton's  "  Paradise  Lost  :" 

Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world  and  all  our  woe, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  Man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  heavenly  Muse,  that  on  the  secret  top 
Of  Oreb,  or  of  Sinai,  didst  inspire 
That  shepherd,  who  first  taught  the  chosen  seed 
In  the  beginning  how  the  heavens  and  earth 
Rose  out  of  Chaos. 


THE  ADVERB.-DEFINITION.  85 


CPIAPTEK    VI. 

THE   ADVERB. 
DEFINITION — CLASSIFICATION — INFLECTION. 

153,  An  adverb*  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning 
of  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another  adverb :  thus — 

( Verb )  The  lowing  herd  WINDS  slowly  o'er  the  lea. 
(Adjective)  Ye  quenchless  stars  !  so  eloquently  BRIGHT. 
(Adverb)  One  who  loved  not  wisely,  but  too  WELL. 

The  office  of  the  adverb  is  to  modify  the  meaning  of  a  word  de- 
noting an  action  or  an  attribute,  by  connecting  with  that  word 
some  condition  or  circumstance — as  of  time,  place,  man  ner,  etc. 

The  verb  expresses  action,  and  adjectives  and  adverbs  express  at- 
tributes :  hence  the  adverb  qualifies  three  parts  of  speech — 

1.  The  verb,  expressing  action. 

2.  The  adjective,  denoting  an  attribute. 

3.  The  adverb,  denoting  an  attribute  of  another  attribute. 

154,  Classification, — As  regards  their  use  in  a  sentence, 
adverbs  are  of  four  kinds:    I.  SIMPLE.     II.  CONJUNCTIVE. 
III.  INTEKKOGATIVE.     IV.  MODAL. 

Under  the  adverb  may  also  be  considered  the  kind  of  words 
termed  responsives.  (See  §  161.) 

155,  A  simple  adverb  is  one  that  merely  modifies  the 
word  with  which  it  is  used :  as,  "  We  arrived  yesterday ;" 
"  You  are  always  ready." 

156,  A  conjunctive  (or  relative)  adverb  is  one  that  not 

*  Adverbium,  from  ad  (to)  and  verbum  (verb),  the  name  " adverb"  implying 
a  word  attached  to  a  verb. 


86  ETYMOLOGY. 

only  modifies  the  word  with  which  it  is  used,  but  connects 
the  clause  in  which  it  occurs  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence : 
thus — 

1.  Come  where  my  love  lies  dreaming. 

2.  We  know  not  whence  it  cometh  or  whither  it  goeth. 

The  office  filled  by  a  conjunctive  adverb  in  a  sentence  is  analogous 
to  the  function  of  the  relative  pronoun ;  and  as  the  relative  pro- 
noun refers  to  an  antecedent,  so  the  conjunctive  adverb  refers  to 
some  preceding  term  of  the  nature  of  a  demonstrative,  expressed 
or  understood.  Thus — 

1.  There  where  a  few  torn  shrubs  the  place  disclose. 

2.  Coine  [then]  when  you  are  ready. 

157 •  The  following  words  are  conjunctive  adverbs : 

when  whence  whereby  whereat  whenever 

where  why  wherefore  while  as* 

whether  wherein  wherepn  whereafter  than 

158,  An  interrogative  adverb  is  one  by  which  a  question 
is  asked :  as — 

1.  Mother,  oh !  where  is  that  radiant  shore  ? 

2.  When  shall  we  three  meet  again? 

159,  A  modal  adverb  is  one  that  denotes  in  what  man- 
ner a  thought  is  conceived  by  the  speaker :  as — 

(Affirmatively)  Thou  shalt  surely  die. 

(Negatively)  It  is  not  all  of  life  to  live. 

(Contingently)  Perhaps  in  this  neglected  spot  is  laid  some  heart. 

Modal  adverbs  differ  from  all  other  adverbs  in  that  they  modify 
the  whole  sentence  rather  than  some  particular  word  or  phrase 
in  it.  This  fact  may  be  taken  into  account  as  a  partial  qualifi- 
cation of  the  definition  of  the  adverb. 

160,  Classes  by  Meaning,— With  reference  to  their  mean- 
ing, adverbs  may  be  divided  into  the  following  classes : 

*  When  correlative  with  so,  sucJi,  or  as. 


THE  ADVERB.— CLASSIFICATION.  87 

1.  Adverbs  of  place  —  answering  the  questions  where?  whither? 
whence?  as,  here,  there,  nowhere,  backwards. 

2.  Adverbs  of  time — answering  the  questions  when  f  how  long  ? 
Iww  often  ?  as,  then,  formerly,  seldom,  thrice. 

3.  Adverbs  of  manner — answering  the  question  how  ?  as,  truly, 
faithfidly,  well,  otherwise. 

4.  Adverbs  of  degree — answering  the  question  how  much?  as, 
scarcely,  little,  enough. 

5.  Adverbs  of  cause — answering  the  question  why  f  as,  therefore, 
wherefore,  why. 

161,  Eesponsives. — The  words  yes  and  no — which  are 
equivalent,  the  former  to  a  responsive  sentence  affirmative, 
the  latter  to  a  responsive  sentence  negative — are  sometimes 
called  responsives:  as,  "Will  you  go?"  "Yes"  (—1  will 
go) ;  "No" (=1  will  not  go). 

These  words  are  derived  from  adverbs,  but  in  their  use  they  re- 
semble interjections.  In  truth,  neither  the  responsives  nor  the 
interjections  are  parts  of  speech,  but  are  entire  sentences  in  el- 
liptical form :  they  are  therefore  non-grammatical  words. 

Adverbial  Phrases,  —  Certain  combinations  of  words  used  ad- 
verbially are  called  adverb ia I  p hrases :  as — 

at  length ;  at  last ;  at  best ;  at  large ;  at  all ;  at  times ;  at  hand ; 
by  and  by;  by  turns;  by  chance;  by  no  means;  in  that; 
inasmuch  as ;  in  truth  ;  in  case ;  from  above ;  from  below ;  one 
by  one ;  in  like  manner ;  now  and  then ;  ever  and  anon ;  up 
and  down ;  in  and  out ;  here  and  there ;  as  yet ;  by  far. 

162,  Comparison, — Some  adverbs  admit  of  comparison. 
The  comparative  and  superlative  degrees  are  formed  in  the 
same  manner  as  those  of  adjectives :  as,  soon,  sooner ',  soonest; 
beautifully,  more  beautifully,  most  beautifully. 

The  following  adverbs,  like  the  adjectives  with  which 
they  correspond,  are  irregularly  compared :  well,  ill.,  badly, 
much,  nigh  or  near,  late,  little,  far,  forth. 


88 


ETYMOLOGY. 


NOTES  ON  THE  ADVERB. 

I.  Prononiinals. — Many  of  the  most  used  adverbs  have  a  pronominal 
origin,  as  shown  in  the  following  table  : 


PLACE. 

MEAN- 

ING. 

IN. 

TO. 

FUOM. 

He- 

this 

he-  re 

(  hi-ther 
(  he-re 

hen-ce 

(now) 

(so) 

} 

The- 

that 

the-re 

(  thi-ther 
1  the-re 

then-ce 

then 

thus 
the 

there- 
fore 

r 

Whe- 

what 

whe-re 

(  whi-ther 
I  whe-re 

when-ce 

when 

how 

why 

elative. 

J    Rj 

II.  Adverbial  (( The." — "  The  "  in  such  expressions  as  "  the  sooner 
the  better"  is  not  the  definite  article  the,  but  a  case  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
demonstrative  that.  The  older  form  was  thy  (compare  why),  and  the 
meaning  is,  "  ly  what  (in  what  degree)  sooner,  ly  that  (in  that  degree) 
better."  " The  sooner"  and  "the  better"  should  be  parsed  as  adverb- 
ial phrases.  So  with  similar  forms :  as,  "  the  more  the  merrier,"  etc. 


EXERCISE    7. 

Select  and  classify  the  adverbs : 

1.  And  now  a  bubble  bursts,  and  now  a  world.  2.  Night  has  already  gone. 
3.  For  them  no  more  the  blazing  hearth  shall  burn.  4.  She  weeps  not,  but  often 
and  deeply  she  sighs.  5.  Again  thy  fires  began  to  burn.  6.  I  was  daily  with 
you.  7.  Thought,  once  tangled,  never  cleared  again.  8.  Dulness  is  ever  apt 
to  magnify.  9.  Where  is  my  child?  and  echo  answers,  "  Where?"  10.  Here 
rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth.  11.  Look  downward  on  yonder  globe. 
12.  Come  hither,  my  little  page.  13.  Onward  in  haste  Llewellyn  passed.  14.  Let 
Norval  go  hence  as  he  came.  15.  I  thence  invoke  thy  aid.  16.  Whence  and 
what  art  thou?  17.  Henceforth,  to  rule  was  not  enough  for  Bonaparte. 
18.  This  institution  universally  prevailed.  19.  Isaac  trembled  exceedingly. 
20.  Think  much,  speak  little.  21.  We  cannot  wholly  deprive  them  of  merit. 
22.  The  same  actions  may  arise  from  quite  contrary  principles*  23.  It  was 
tnought  very  strange.  24.  They  were  completely  in  my  power. 


THE  PREPOSITION.— DEFINITION.  89 

CHAPTER   VII. 
THE    PREPOSITION. 

163,  Definition, — A  preposition*  is  a  connective  word  ex- 
pressing a  relation  of  meaning  between  a  noun  or  pronoun 
and  some  other  word :  as,  "  The  book  lies  before  me  on  the 
desk." 

I.  The  noun  or  pronoun  depending  on  the  preposition  is  said  to 
be  governed  by  it,  and  is  in  the  objective  case. 

II.  A  preposition  connects  words,  but  it  shows  the  relation  between 
some  thing  and  (1)  some  other  thing,  or  (2)  some  action,  or  (3) 
some  attribute.    Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  I  saw  a  man  in  a  boat," 
"  in"  is  a  preposition,  and  marks  the  relation  (of  place)  in  which 
the  man  stands  to  the  boat. 

In  the  sentence,  "  The  boat  went  down  the  stream,"  "  down  "  is  a 
preposition,  and  marks  the  relation  (of  direction)  which  the 
action  of  going  bears  to  the  stream. 

In  the  sentence,  "  Honey  is  sweet  to  the  taste,"  "  to  "  denotes  the 
relation  (of  nearness)  of  taste  to  the  attribute  sweet. 

III.  The  equivalents  of  the  noun  (before  which  a  preposition  can 
be  placed)  are — 

(1)  An  infinitive :  "  None  knew  thee  BUT  to  love  thee." 

(2)  An  infinitive  in  ing  (gerund) :  "  His  conduct  IN  rescuing  the 
child  was  greatly  praised." 

(3)  A  clause :  "  This  will  depend  ON  w?io  the  commissioners  are." 

164,  The  connection  made  by  a  preposition  is  between  a 
noun  (or  pronoun)  and  a  noun,  a  verb,  or  an  adjective. 

1.  Another  noun  (or  pronoun)  :  "  There  is  a  BOOK  on  the  talk." 
"  Give  IT  to  me." 

*  The  word  preposition  (prce,  before,  and  ponere,  to  place)  literally  means 
placed  before  something ;  and  they  were  so  named  because  they  were  originally 
prefixed  to  the  verb  to  modify  its  meaning.  Now,  however,  they  are  usually 
placed  before  nouns  or  pronouns. 


90  ETYMOLOGY. 

2.  A  verb:  "James  HAS  RETURNED  from  school." 

3.  An  adjective :  "  He  is  FOND  of  his  look." 

165 1  The  object  of  a  preposition  is  the  noun  or  the  pro- 
noun depending  on  (or  governed  by)  it.     Thus — 

She  is  far  from  the  land  where  her  young  hero  sleeps, 

And  lovers  around  her  are  sighing ; 
But  coldly  she  turns  from  their  gaze  and  weeps, 

For  her  heart  in  his  grave  is  lying. 

I.  In  the  common  arrangement  of  words  the  preposition  comes  be- 
fore its  object.     But  inversions  of  this  order  are  frequent,  both 
in  poetry — as,  "  Where  echo  walks  the  steep  hills  among  " — and 
in  prose — as,  "  The  pen  that  I  am  writing  with"  =  with  which  I 
am  writing. 

II.  By  governing  the  objective  case  is  meant  making  it  necessary 
that  the  noun  or  pronoun  shall  assume  that  case ;  just  as  transitive 
verbs  control  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  objective  case.    Owing 
to  the  absence  of  an  objective  case-form  in  the  noun,  this  gov- 
erning or  controlling  power  of  the  preposition  is  not  manifest  in 
words  belonging  to  that  part  of  speech ;  but  it  is  seen  in  such 
pronouns  as  possess  a  distinct  case-form :  thus,  "from  him"  " to 
me"  "  by  us"  "  among  them" 


List  of  the  Principal  Prepositions. 


about 

above 

across 

after 

against 

along 

amid    | 

amidst  > 

among    ^ 

amongst ) 

around 

at 

athwart 

before 


behind 

below 

beneath 

beside  > 

besides  f 

between 

betwixt 

beyond 

but 

by 

down 

excepting 

for 

from 


in 

to 

into 

toward  > 

of 

towards  ) 

off 

under 

on 

underneath 

over 

until 

pending 

unto 

regarding 

up 

respecting 

upon 

round 

with 

since 

within 

through 

without 

throughout 

till 

THE  PREPOSITION.— NOTES.  91 


NOTES  ON  THE  PREPOSITION. 

I.  Analysis. — In  the  list  of  prepositions  above  given,  the  following 
are  simple  prepositions : 

at  from  off  till  up 

by  in  on  to  with 

for  of  through 

Most  of  the  other  prepositions  may,  with  regard  to  their  origin,  be 
classed  as  follows : 

1.  Prepositions  formed  by  prefixing  the  preposition  a=:<9/i,  or  be=fa/, 
to  a  noun  or  an  adjective  used  substantively :  viz. — 

a-cross*  a-mong,  or  a-mongst  be-low 

a-gainst  a-round  be-side,  or  be-sides 

a-mid,  or  a-midstf  a-thwart  be-tween,  or  be-twixt§ 

Along  is  made  up  of  anfcopposite,  and  long ;  since  is  derived 
from  Anglo-Saxon  sith— \2iiQ ;  inside=in+side ;  outside— out+side. 

2.  Prepositions  formed  by  prefixing  a  preposition  to  an  adverb : 
viz.— - 

a-bout=a  (on)+\)Q  (fa/) -f-out. 

a-K)Ove=a  (on) -{-be  (fa/)+ove  (up). 

be-forer=be  (?>#)+ fore. 

be-hind=:be  (fo/)-fhind. 

be-neath^rbe  (fo/)-f  neath  (under). 

be-yond=be  %)+yond  (yonder,  or  there). 

but^be  (fa/)-futan,  by  out,  i.  e.,  on  the  outside  of,  and  hence  except. 

throughout = through + out. 

underneath =under4  neath. 

3.  Prepositions  derived  from  adverbs  by  a  comparative  suffix  :  viz. — 
af-ter,  a  comparative  of  the  root  #/— ofcfrom :  that  is,  more  from*  (a 

certain  time,  etc.). 

ov-er,  a  comparative  of  the  root  of,  or  uf:  that  is,  more  up. 

*  From  French  croix,  a  cross. 

t  Anglo-Saxon,  on  mid''  dum:  on-fadjective  mid  in  middle. 

§  Between  comes  from  tweon,  twain,  a  derivative  of  twa,  two. 


92  ETYMOLOGY. 

un-der,  which  contains  the  root  itt-fder  (=ther),  a  comparative 
suffix. 

II.  Prepositional  Forms.  —  Several  words  commonly  classed  as 
prepositions  belong  properly  to  parts  of  speech  whose  functions  are 
better  defined.  Among  these  are  : 

1.  Except  and  save,  imperatives  of  the  verbs  to  except,  to  save—  to 
leave  out.* 

concerning  ^ 
considering  I 

barring        [  are  present  participles  used  absolutely,  and  take 
regarding    f      objects  after  them. 
respecting 
^touching 

3.  During  (present  participle  of  dure,  to  endure,  or  last)  accompanies 
a  noun  in  the  nominative  absolute  :  as,  "  during  the  night"=the  night 
during  or  lasting.  Notwithstanding1,  accompanying  a  noun,  is  in  the 
same  construction. 


EXERCISE    8. 

Select  the  prepositions  : 

1.  The  man  with  the  gray  coat  fell  from  the  top  of  the  wall.  2.  We  rise 
at  seven  o'clock  in  the  winter,  and  in  summer  at  six.  3.  James  VI.,  of  Scot- 
land, was  the  great-grand-nephew  of  Henry  VII.  of  England,  the  first  of  the 
Tudor  line.  4.  There  are  many  proofs  of  the  roundness  of  the  earth.  5.  The 
head  of  the  gang  listened  in  silence  to  the  remonstrances  of  his  subordinates. 
6.  His  head  had  not  been  five  seconds  under  water,  when  he  rose  to  the  sur- 
face and  swam  towards  the  bank.  7.  He  of  the  rueful  countenance  answered 
without  delay.  8.  As  we  walked  across  the  bridge  we  saw  a  number  of  fish 
tn  the  pool  beneath  us.  9.  With  patience  you  may  succeed.  10.  I  have  not 
seen  him  since  Monday,  but  I  expect  him  within  an  hour.  11.  A  brilliant 
meteor  shot  athwart  the  sky,  and  was  lost  behind  the  hill.  12.  The  poor  bird 
took  refuge  in  a  hole  in  the  oak,  and  died  of  fright.  13.  Indian  corn,  when  ripe 
in  October,  is  gathered  in  the  field  by  men  who  go  from  hill  to  hill  with  bas- 
kets into  which  they  put  the  corn.  14.  The  creaking  of  the  masts  was  fright- 
ful. 15.  We  gazed  with  inexpressible  pleasure  on  those  happy  islands.  16.  It 
happened  one  day,  when  going  towards  my  boat,  I  was  exceedingly  surprised 
with  the  print  of  a  man's  naked  foot  on  the  shore. 

*  Or  except  and  save  may  be  remnants  of  Latin  ablatives  absolute,  in  which 
excepto  and  salvo  were  used. 


THE  CONJUNCTION.  93 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
THE    CONJUNCTION. 

166,  A  conjunction*  is  a  word  used  to  connect  sentences 
or  the  elements  of  a  sentence. 

The  elements  of  a  sentence  are  (1)  words,  (2)  phrases^  and  (3)  prop- 
ositions^ 

1.  Hamilton  AND  Jefferson  were  distinguished  statesmen. 

The  conjunction  "and"  unites  the  words  "Hamilton"  and  "Jeffer- 
son" as  component  parts  of  the  subject  of  the  verb  "were." 

2.  The  sound  of  falling  waters  OR  of  the  rustling  leaves  is  agreeable 

to  the  ear. 

The  conjunction  "or"  connects  the  two  phrases  "of  falling  waters,'' 
"of  the  rustling  leaves,"  as  modifiers  of  the  noun  "sound." 

3.  [James  will  come]  IF  [you  call]. 

The  conjunction  "if"  joins  the  two  propositions  "James  will  come'N 
and  "you  call."  The  first  is  the  principal  proposition,  the  second, 
"  [if]  you  call,"  the  subordinate  proposition  (or  clause). 

167 1  Conjunctions  are  divided,  according  to  their  use,  into 
two  classes :  I.  CO-OEDINATE  CONJUNCTIONS.  II.  SUBORDINATE 

CONJUNCTIONS. 

168.  A  CO-ordinate  conjunction  is  one  that  connects  (1) 
words  and  phrases  which  have  the  same  grammatical  rela- 
tion to  some  other  word  in  the  sentence ;  (2)  propositions 
each  of  which  is  of  the  same  rank  —  that  is,  both  indepen- 
dent or  both  dependent. 

*  From  Latin  con,  together,  and  jungere,  to  join. 
t  See  §  218. 
\  See  §  219. 


94:  ETYMOLOGY. 

1.  The  winds  AND  the  waves  are  absent  there. 

Here  "  winds"  and  "  waves"  have  the  same  relation—that  of  subject— 
to  "are."  The  conjunction  "and"  which  connects  them  in  con- 
struction is,  therefore,  a  co-ordinate  conjunction. 

2.  The  boy  is  always  running  down  to  the  river  OR  into  the  woods. 

The  phrases  uto  the  river"  and  "into  the  woods"  have  the  same 
relation  to  the  verb  "is  running"  (being  adverbial  phrases  modi- 
fying that  verb).  "Or"  is,  therefore,  a  co-ordinate  conjunction. 

3.  [He  chid  their  wanderings]  BUT  [relieved  their  pain]. 

"  Both  of  the  propositions  connected  by  "but"  are  of  the  same  rank 
—each  being  an  independent  statement.  "But"  is,  therefore,  a 
co-ordinate  conjunction. 

169.  The  principal  co-ordinate  conjunctions  are: 

and  neither  either  whether 

but  nor  or  both 

170.  Correlatives. — Some  conjunctions  that  are  used  in 
pairs  are  called  correlatives  ;  that  is,  conjunctions  having  a 
mutual  relation. 

Both — and It  is  loth  yours  and  mine. 

Either — or He  is  either  a  knave  or  a  fool. 

Neither — nor Neither  the  horse  nor  the  carriage  was  injured. 

Whether — or It  matters  little  whether  I  go  or  stay. 

171  •  A  subordinate  conjunction  is  one  used  to  connect  a 
dependent  with  a 'principal  proposition. 

Subordinate  conjunctions  never  couple  words  only. 

If  we  cannot  remove  pain,  we  may  alleviate  it. 

I  fled  "because  I  was  afraid. 

172,  The  principal  subordinate  conjunctions  are: 

that  though  for 

if  although  till 

lest  after  until 

unless  before  because 

notwithstanding  since  except 


THE  INTERJECTION.  95 

EXERCISE    9. 

Select  and  classify  the  conjunctions  : 

1.  Take  heed  lest  ye  fall. 

2.  I  have  cut  my  finger,  therefore  I  cannot  write. 

3.  I  fear  I  shall  fail,  but  I  shall  make  the  attempt. 

4.  I  shall  make  the  attempt,  though  I  fear  that  I  shall  fail. 

5.  He  speaks  so  low  that  he  cannot  be  heard. 

6.  Remain  where  you  are  till  I  return. 

7.  He  will  neither  come  nor  send  an  apology. 

8.  It  is  as  cold  as  Iceland. 

9.  I  know  not  whether  to  go  or  to  remain. 

10.  Ask  James  if  he  is  ready ;  and  if  he  is  ready,  tell  him  to  follow  as  quick- 

ly as  he  can. 

11.  He  did  not  deserve  to  succeed ;  for  he  made  no  effort,  and  showed  no 

interest. 

12.  I  shall  not  go  unless  you  call  me,  nor  will  I  remain  if  I  can  avoid  it. 

13.  I  can  wonder  at  nothing  more  than  how  a  man  can  be  idle;   but  of  all 

others  a  scholar. 

14.  The  precise  era  of  the  invention  and  application  of  gunpowder  is  in- 

volved in  doubtful  traditions  and  equivocal  language;  yet  we  may 
clearly  discern  that  it  was  known  before  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth 
century ;  and  that  before  the  end  of  the  same  the  use  of  artillery 
in  battles  and  sieges,  by  sea  and  land,  was  familiar  to  the  states  of 
Germany,  Italy,  Spain,  France,  and  England. 

15.  Whether  he  was  combined 
With  those  of  Norway ;  or  did  line  the  rebel 
With  hidden  help  and  vantage ;  or  that  with  both 
He  labor' d  in  his  country's  wrack,  I  know  not. 


THE    INTERJECTION. 

173 •  Definition, — An  interjection  is  a  word  which  ex- 
presses an  emotion,  but  which  does  not  enter  into  the  con- 
struction of  the  sentence :  as,  Ok  !  Ah  !  Alas  !  Hurrah  ! 

NOTE.— What  is  further  to  be  said  respecting  the  interjection  will  be 
found  under  Syntax, 


96  ETYMOLOGY. 

GENEKAL  REVIEW  OP  THE  ADVERB,  PREPOSITION,  AND  CONJUNCTION 

A. 

TABLE  FOR  BLACKBOARD. 
i.  THE:  ADVERB. 

(SIMPLE. 
I?™™.        «™-*'™ ComPa 
MODAL. 

2.  THE  PREPOSITION. 

Classes None.  Gram.  Forms None. 


3.   THE    CONJUNCTION. 

{CO-ORDINJ 
SUBORDINATE. 


j  CO-ORDINATE.  Gram.  Forms None. 


B. 

TOPICAL  ANALYSIS. 
I.  Adverb  Defined. 
II.  Classes  of  Adverbs. 

1.  SIMPLE  ADVERB  DEFINED. 

2.  CONJUNCTIVE  ADVERB  DEFINED. 

3.  INTERROGATIVE  ADVERB  DEFINED. 

4.  MODAL  ADVERB  DEFINED. 

III.  Grammatical  Form. 

COMPARISON — HOW  FORMED. 

IV.  Preposition  Defined. 

NATURE  OF  THE  RELATION  DENOTED. 
V.  Government  by  Prepositions. 

OBJECT  DEFINED. 
VI.  Conjunction  Defined. 

ELEMENTS  CONNECTED. 
VII.  Classes  of  Conjunctions. 

1.  CO-ORDINATE  DEFINED. 

2.  SUBORDINATE  DEFINED. 

3.  CORRELATIVE  DEFINED. 


GENERAL  REVIEW  OF  ADVERB,  PREPOSITION,  ETC.         97 

c. 

WRITTEN  REVIEWS. 

I. 

1.  What  is  the  derivation  of  the  word  adverb? 

2.  What  are  the  classes  of  adverbs  with  respect  to  grammatical  use  ? 

3.  Write  a  sentence  containing  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

4.  Write  examples  of  adverbs  of  time,  place,  and  negation. 

5.  Explain  "  the  "  in  "  the  more  the  merrier." 

6.  How  are  adverbs  compared  ? 

7.  Give  the  origin  of  five  adverbs  derived  from  a  pronominal  root. 

II. 

1.  Draw  out  in  tabular  form  the  prepositions  and  conjunctions : 

It  is  enacted  in  the  laws  of  Venice, — 
If  it  be  proved  against  an  alien, 
That  by  direct  or  indirect  attempts 
He  seek  the  life  of  any  citizen, 
The  party  'gainst  the  which  he  doth  contrive 
Shall  seize  one  half  his  goods ;  the  other  half 
Comes  to  the  privy  coffer  of  the  state ; 
And  the  offender's  life  lies  in  the  mercy 
Of  the  duke  only,  'gainst  all  other  voice. 
In  which  predicament  I  say  thou  stand'st: 
For  it  appears,  by  manifest  proceeding, 
That  indirectly— and  directly  too— 
Thou  hast  contrived  against  the  very  life 
Of  the  defendant ;  and  thou  hast  incurred 
The  danger  formerly  by  me  rehearsed. 
Down,  therefore,  and  beg  mercy  of  the  duke. 

2.  Write  sentences  illustrating  the  use  of  all  the  simple  prepositions. 

III. 

1.  Give  the  etymology  of  the  word  conjunction. 

2.  What  is  a  co-ordinate  conjunction  ?     Illustrate  by  examples. 

3.  What  is  a  subordinate  conjunction  ?     Illustrate  by  examples. 
^.  Write  a  sentence  containing  a  pair  of  correlative  conjunctions. 

5.  Write  out  in  tabular  form  all  the  conjunctions  in  the  passage 

from  the  Merchant  of  Venice,  given  above. 

6.  Write  a  sentence  containing  two  interjections. 

E 


98  ETYMOLOGY. 


CHAPTEK  IX. 

USES    AND    PARSING-    OF    THE    PARTS    OF 
SPEECH. 


I.  THE 

174,  A  noun  is  parsed  etymologically  by  stating  : 

I.  Its  class  —  proper,  common,  or  abstract. 

II.  Its  grammatical  forms  —  number,  gender,  and  case. 

The  person  of  a  noun  need  not  be  given  unless  of  the  first  or 
second  person. 

III.  Its  use, 


TEACHER'S  NOTE. — The  introduction,  into  the  treatment  of  etymology,  of 
the  uses  of  a  given  part  of  speech— a  subject  which  may  seem  to  belong  rather 
to  syntax — needs  a  word  of  explanation.  The  English  language,  as  we  have 
seen,  is  to  a  very  limited  degree  an  inflected  tongue :  it  is  often  impossible  to 
determine  the  grammatical  form  of  a  noun  (and  consequently  to  perform  even 
the  etymological  parsing  thereof)  without  reference  to  the  function  of  the 
noun  in  the  sentence.  Thus  there  is  no  visible  distinction  between  a  noun  in 
the  nominative  case  and  one  in  the  objective  case  or  in  the  absolute  construc- 
tion; no  difference  between  a  noun  in  the  objective  case  and  one  in  what  is,  in 
fact,  the  dative  case,  or  in  the  adverbial  construction.  Accordingly,  to  require 
pupils  to  assign  grammatical  properties  to  a  word  destitute  of  any  sign  of  such 
properties,  while  at  the  same  time  leaving  them  ignorant  as  to  the  functional 
tests  of  grammatical  form,  appears  to  be  a  somewhat  irrational  procedure,  and 
one  that  sufficiently  accounts  for  the  vague  and  unsatisfactory  notions  that 
pupils  generally  acquire  respecting  the  important  and  deeply  interesting  study 
of  English  etymology. 

It  is  for  this  reason  that  in  the  present  text-book  the  etymological  treat- 
ment of  a  given  part  of  speech  is  supplemented  by  a  detailed  exhibit  of  the 
functions  of  said  part  of  speech.  This  is  not  syntax  any  more  than  it  is  ety- 
mology—it is  rather  a  border-land  between  the  two.  In  the  exercises  in  etymo- 
logical parsing  the  enumeration  of  the  properties  of  a  word  is  followed  by  the 
statement  of  the  particular  use  of  the  word— not  in  the  shape  of  a  syntactical 
rule,  but  merely  by  way  of  accounting  for  the  word's  otherwise  indeterminable 
grammatical  form. 


THE  NOUN.— ITS    USES.  99 

175,  There  are  nine  uses  or  functions  of  the  noun  in  a 
sentence. 

I,  Subject, — A  noun  may  be  in  the  nominative  case  as 
the  subject  of  a  verb. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

The  bugle's  note  and  cannon's  roar  the  death-like  silence  broke. 

note is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number,  neuter  gender, 

and  nominative  case— the  subject  of  the  verb  "broke." 
roar (same  parsing).        

EXERCISE    10. 

Parse  etymologically  the  noim-subjects  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  Water  consists  of  two  gases. 

2.  Napoleon  went  to  Egypt  with  forty  sail-of-the-line. 

3.  Life's  but  a  walking  shadow. 

4.  Holy  and  heavenly  thoughts  shall  counsel  her. 

5.  Then  rose  from  sea  to  sky  the  wild  farewell. 

6.  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck, 
Whence  all  but  him  had  fled. 

7.  Kindness  to  animals  is  a  duty  of  all. 


II,  Possessive, — A.  noun  may  be  used  attributively*  in 
the  possessive  case.  It  is  then  said  to  limit  or  modify  the 
noun  with  which  it  is  joined  in  meaning. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

The  bugle's  note  and  cannon's  roar  the  death-like  silence  broke. 

bugle's is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number,  neuter  gender, 

and  possessive  case — limiting  the  noun  "  note." 

cannon's... is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number,f  neuter  gen- 
der, and  possessive  case — limiting  the  noun  "  roar." 

*  See  page  137. 

t  It  may,  however,  be  construed  as  in  the  plural,  being  an  indeterminate 
form. 


100  ETYMOLOGY. 

EXERCISE    11. 

Parse  etymologically  the  nouns  possessive  in  the  f  ollow* 
irig  sentences : 

1.  The  spider's  web  is  a  wonderful  piece  of  work. 

2.  Some  judge  of  authors1  names,  not  works. 

3.  See  laurels  on  the  bald  first  Caesar's  head. 

4.  This  is  my  fathers'  ancient  burial-place. 

5.  So  shall  the  Northern  pioneer  go  joyful  on  his  way, 
To  wed  Penobscot's  waters  to  San  Francisco's  bay. 

6.  Progress,  Liberty's  proud  teacher; 
Progress,  Labor's  sure  reward. 


Ill,  Object, — A  noun  may  be  in  the  objective  case  as 
the  object  of  a  transitive  verb. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

The  bugle's  note  and  cannon's  roar  the  death-like  silence  broke, 
silence... is  an  abstract  noun,  of  the  singular  number,  neuter  gender, 
and  objective  case — the  object  of  the  verb  "broke."* 


EXERCISE    12. 

Parse  etymologically  the  noun-objects  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  I  met  a  little  cottage  girl. 

2.  The  Muses  haunt  clear  spring  or  shady  grove  or  sunny  hill. 

3.  The  reindeer  draws  the  Laplander's  sledge. 

4.  The  Laplander  defies  the  severity  of  his  native  climate. 

5.  When  he  read  the  note,  he  shook  his  head,  and  observed  that  an  affair  of 

this  sort  demanded  the  utmost  circumspection. 

6.  We  carved  not  a  line,  we  raised  not  a  stone. 

7.  Enough,  enough ;  sit  down  and  share 
A  soldier's  couch,  a  soldier's  fare. 

8.  Who  would  bear  the  whips  and  scornsf  of  time, 

The  oppressor's  wrong,fthe  proud  man's  contumely  ?f 

*  The  object  "silence"  is  here  in  the  inverted  or  poetic  order;  the  usual 
place  of  an  object  is  after  the  governing  verb. 

t  Supply  "  bear."     The  governing  verb  is  often  understood. 


THE  NOUX.—ITS  usxs:  101 

IV,  Phrase-use i — A  noun  may  be  joined  to  another  word 
by  means  of  a  preposition.     It  is  then  parsed  as  in  the  ob- 
jective case,  depending  on  the  preposition. 

The  noun   and  its   so-called  "governing"  preposition  form  a 
prepositional  phrase. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

The  army  crossed  the  river  by  a  bridge  made  of  pontoon-boats. 

bridge is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number,  neuter 

gender,  and  objective  case — depending  on  the  prepo- 
sition "  by." 

pontoon-boats... is  a  common  noun,  of  the  plural  number,  neuter  gen- 
der, and  objective  case — depending  on  the  preposi- 
tion "  of."  

EXERCISE    13. 

Parse  etymologically  the  nouns  in  the  objective  case  gov- 
erned by  prepositions : 

1.  The  Gauls  were  conquered  by  Caesar. 

2.  We  gazed  with  inexpressible  pleasure  on  those  happy  islands. 

3.  The  end  of  government  is  the  good  of  mankind. 

4.  There  came  to  the  beach  a  poor  exile  of  Erin. 

5.  From  peak  to  peak  the  rattling  crags  among, 
Leaps  the  live  thunder. 

6.  Out  flew 

Millions  of  flaming  swords  drawn  from  the  thighs 
Of  mighty  cherubim. 

V,  Indirect  object, — A  noun  may  be  used  in  the  objective 
case  as  the  indirect  object  of  a  verb.     The  indirect  object 
may  readily  be  recognized  by  these  tests :  it  comes  before  a 
direct  object,  and  answers  the  question,  "  For  or  to  whom  ?" 
"  For  or  to  what  ?"* 

*  In  the  earliest  English  there  was  a  special  inflection  to  denote  the  indi- 
rect object.  This  was  called  the  dative  case,  which  means  literally  the  giving 
case,  because  this  inflected  form  was  used  chiefly  after  such  verbs  as  give,  lend, 
send,  and  the  like.  Thus — 

(Early  English}— This  king  gave  large  gifts  ministr-?^m. 

(Modern  English)— This  king  gave  [to]  the  ministers  large  gifts.— Abbott's 
Shakespearean  Grammar, 


102 


'ETYMOLOGY. 


Model  for  Parsing. 

1.  We  gave  the  man  a  book. 

2.  Socrates  taught  Plato  philosophy. 

man  ....is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number,  masculine  gender^ 
and  objective  case — indirect  object  of  the  verb  "gave." 

Plato... is  a  proper  noun,  singular  number,  masculine  gender,  and  ob- 
jective case — indirect  object  of  the  verb  "taught." 


EXERCISE  14. 

Parse  etymologically  the  nouns  used  as  indirect  objects : 

1.  This  king  gave  the  ministers  large  gifts. 

2.  The  judge  granted  the  prisoner  a  full  pardon. 

3.  Ascham  taught  Lady  Jane  Grey  the  Greek  language. 

4.  Lend  the  poor  man  a  dollar. 

5.  We  sent  the  teacher  a  request. 


VI,  Appositive. — A  noun  may  be  used  to  explain  another 
noun.  It  is  then  said  to  be  an  appositive,  or  to  be  in  appo- 
sition *  with  the  noun  which  it  explains,  and  is  in  the  same 
case  (nominative,  possessive,  or  objective)  as  that  noun. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

1.  Ali  reclined,  a  man  of  war  and  woes. 

man is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number  and  masculine 

gender ;  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  because  "Ali,"  with  which 
it  is  in  apposition,  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  "reclined." 

2.  We  beheld  the  Mississippi,  that  mighty  river. 

river  ....is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number  and  neuter  gender ; 
it  is  in  the  objective  case,  being  in  apposition  with.  "  Missis- 
sippi," the  object  of  the  verb  "beheld." 

*  From  ad,  near  or  alongside  of,  and  ponere,  to  place  or  put.  There  may  be 
intervening  words,  but  no  connecting  words ;  and  both  words  must  be  in  the 
same  member  of  the  sentence. 


THE  NOUN.— ITS   USES.  1Q3 

EXERCISE    15. 

Parse  etymologically  the  nouns  in  apposition  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1.  Next  came  Thomas,  the  boy  that  cleans  the  boots. 

2.  Then  we  saw  Thomas,  the  boy  that  cleans  the  boots. 

3.  Washington,  the  father  of  his  country,  was  the  first  president  of  the 

United  States. 

4.  Whang  the  miller  was  very  avaricious. 

5.  "We  admire  Milton,  the  great  English  poet. 


VII,  Predicate  Nominative,— A  noun  may  come  after, 
or  complete  the  meaning  of,  certain  intransitive  or  passive 
verbs,  and  yet  denote  the  same  person  or  thing  as  the  sub- 
ject of  the  verb.  It  is  then  called  the  predicate  nominative. 

Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  The  author  of  this  book  is  my  brother," 
"  brother"  is  in  the  predicate,  but  it  is  not  the  object  of  the  verb, 
for  the  verb  "is"  asserts  the  identity  of  "author"  and  "broth- 
er:" so  that,  as  "  author"  is  in  the  nominative  case,  "  brother" 
must  be  in  the  same  case.  We  may  say,  "  The  author  of  this 
book  is  J"  (nom.  case),  not  "  is  me"  (obj.  case). 

Model  for  Parsing. 

1.  Tennyson  is  a  poet. 

poet is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number,  masculine 

gender,  and  nominative  case — predicate  nominative  after 
the  verb  "  is." 

2.  Washington  was  elected  president  in  1789. 

president... is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number,  masculine  gen- 
der, and  nominative  case — predicate  nominative  after 
"  was  elected." 


EXERCISE    16. 

Parse  etymologically  the  nouns  that  are  predicate  nomi- 
natives in  the  following  sentences : 


104:  ETYMOLOGY. 

1.  And,  Saxon,  I  am  Roderick  Dhu. 

2.  The  earth  is  a  planet. 

3.  Mary  still  seemed  a  queen  (=was  a  queen  in  seeming,  or  appearance). 

4.  King  William  of  Prussia  became  Emperor  of  Germany  in  1871. 

5.  He  was  a  man,  take  him  for  all  in  all,  I  shall  not  look  upon  his  like 

again. 


VIII,  Independent  and  Absolute, — A  noun  may  be  in 
the  nominative  case  independent  or  absolute:  thus — 

1.  Eoratius,  saith  the  consul,  as  thou  sayest,  so  let  it  be. 

2.  The  storm  having  ceased,  we  departed. 

I.  Nominative  Independent. — In  example  l,the  noun  "Horatius" 
has  no  grammatical  dependence  on  any  other  word  in  the  sen- 
tence.   Hence  it  is  said  to  be  independent,  and  it  is  parsed  as 
in  the  nominative  case. 

II.  Nominative  Absolute. — In  example  2,  the  noun  "  storm"  has 
no  grammatical  relation  to  any  other  word  in  the  sentence.    The 
sentence  is  not  "The  storm  ceased,  and  we  departed,"  or  "  When 
the  storm  ceased,  we  departed,"  but  "  The  storm  having  ceased,  we 
departed."    The  words  "  the  storm  having  ceased"  form  a  phrase. 
(See  §  218.)     "When  a  noun  is  found  in  this  construction,  it  is 
parsed  as  in  the  nominative  absolute* 

Model  for  Parsing. 

1.  Mary,  your  lilies  are  in  bloom. 

Mary... is  a  proper  noun,  of  the  second  person,  singular  number,  femi- 
nine gender,  and  nominative  case  independent. 

2.  The  river  not  being  fordable,  we  had  to  make  a  great  detour, 
river.. .is  a  common  noun,  of  the  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and 

nominative  case  absolute. 
NOTE. — See  examples  for  parsing  under  Exercise  17,  page  107. 

*  The  author  has  deemed  it  more  in  accordance  with  the  history  of  our  lan- 
guage to  separate  the  construction  here  called  the  nominative  absolute  from 
that  called  the  nominative  independent  than  to  call  the  former  the  ''nomina- 
tive independent"  and  the  latter  the  "nominative  independent  by  address." 
The  nominative  absolute  corresponds  to  the  Latin  "ablative  absolute"  (in  Anglo- 
Saxon  the  noun  in  this  construction  was  in  the  dative  case),  while  what  is  here 
termed  the  nominative  independent  corresponds  to  the  Latin  vocative. 


THE  NOUN.— ITS   USES.  105 

IX,  Objective  Adverbial,— A  noun  may  be  used  in  the 
objective  case  when  it  is  employed  in  the  manner  of  an  ad- 
verb  to  modify  a  verb  or  an  adjective,  by  expressing  meas- 
ure of  time,  distance,  value,  etc. :  as— 

1.  We  walked  a  mile. 

2.  You  are  afoot  taller  than  I. 

3.  The  battle  lasted  three  days. 

In  this  use  the  noun  is  called  the  objective  adverbial* 

Model  for  Parsing1. 

That  pole  is  ten  feet  high, 
feet... is  a  common  noun,  of  the  plural  number,  neuter  gender,  and 

objective  case — objective  adverbial  modifying  the  adjective 

"high"  (=high  ly  ten  feet). 
NOTE. — See  examples  for  parsing  under  Exercise  17,  page  107. 


EXERCISE    17. 
A. 

Parse  the  italicized  nouns  in  the  following  sentences : 

[Under  I.-V.,  pages  99-101.] 

1.  All  men  are  created  equal. — Jefferson, 

2.  Then  rose  from  sea  to  sky  the  wild  farewell. — Byron. 

3.  Vanish' d  is  the  ancient  splendor,  and  before  my  dreamy  eye 

Wave  these  mingling  shapes  and  figures,  like  a  faded  tapestry.—  Longfellow. 

4.  The  steed  along  the  drawbridge  flies. — Scott. 

5.  I  could  hear  my  friend  chide  him  for  not  finding  out  some  work,  but  at 

the  same  time  saw  him  put  his  hand  in  his  pocket  and  give  him  sixpence. 
— Spectator. 

*  Many  grammarians  parse  nouns  thus  used  as  governed  by  a  preposition 
understood  ("  We  walked  for  a  mile;"  "You  are  taller  by  a  foot,"  etc.).  But 
there  is  no  preposition  to  be  supplied,  and  there  never  was  any.  Nouns  in  this 
construction  are  disguised  forms  of  early  English  genitives  or  datives — cases 
that  were  used  to  denote  measure,  time,  etc.  Thus,  "three  furlongs  broad" 
was  in  Anglo-Saxon  "  ihreor&furlanga  brad,"  where  "  furlanga  "  is  in  the  geni- 
tive case.  So  the  expression  "bound  hand  and/oo£"  was  in  Anglo-Saxon 
"bound  hand-;*m  and  fot-um  (=as  regards  or  in  hand  and  foot),  the  nouns 
being  in  the  dative  case. 

E2 


ETYMOLOGY. 

6.  Thou  knowest  my  praise  of  nature  most  sincere, 
And  that  my  raptures  are  not  conjured  up 

To  serve  occasions  of  poetic  pomp, 

But  genuine,  and  art  partner  of  them  all. — Cowper. 

7.  Thy  name  and  watchword  o'er  this  land 

I  hear  in  every  breeze  that  stirs, 
And  round  a  thousand  altars  stand 
Thy  banded  party  worshippers.  — Whittier. 

8.  Whilst  I  was  thus  musing,  I  cast  my  eyes  towards  the  summit  of  a  rock 

that  was  not  far  from  me,  where  I  discovered  one  in  the  habit  of  a 
shepherd,  with  a  little  musical  instrument  in  his  hand.—Addison. 

9.  His  spear,  to  equal  which  the  tallest  pine 
Hewn  on  Norwegian  hills  to  he  the  mast 
Of  some  great  ammiral  were  but  a  wand, 
He  walked  with,  to  support  uneasy  steps 
Over  the  burning  marie. — Milton. 

10.  The  gushmg  flood  the  tartans  dyed.—  Scott. 

11.  Lives  of  great  men  all  remind  us 

We  can  make  our  lives  sublime, 
And,  departing,  leave  behind  us 
Footprints  on  the  sands  of  time. — Longfellow. 

12.  His  father1  s  sword  he  has  girded  on. — Moore. 

13.  Leaves  have  their  time  to  fall 

And  flowers  to  wither  at  the  North  Wind's  breath. — Hemans. 

14.  Then  future  ages  with  delight  shall  see 

How  Plato's,  Bacon's,  Newton's  looks  agree. — Pope. 

15.  The  only,  the  perpetual  dirge 

That's  heard  there  is  the  sea-bird's  cry, 
The  mournful  murmur  of  the  surge, 
The  cloud's  deep  voice,  the  wind's  low  sigh.—  Pierpont. 

16.  The  patriarch  made  Joseph  a  coat  of  many  colors. 

17.  Lend  your  neighbors  a  helping  hand. 

18.  We  forgive  our  friends  their  faults. 

19.  Then  give  humility  a  coach-and-six, 
Justice  a  conqueror's  sword,  or  truth  a  gown, 
Or  public  spirit  its  great  cure,  a  crown. — Pope. 

20.  He  chooses  company,  but  not  the  squire's.* — Addison. 

B. 

[Under  VI.-IX.,  pages  102-105.] 

1.  Thomson,  the  poet,  was  a  contemporary  of  Hume,  the  historian. 

2.  The  emperor  Kaoti,  a  soldier  of  fortune,  marched  against  the  Huns.— 

Gibbon. 

*  That  is,  "  the  squire's  company."    The  noun  limited  by  a  noun  in  the  pos- 
sessive case  is  often  omitted,  but  in  parsing  it  must  be  supplied  as  understood. 


THE  NOUN.— ITS   USES.  107 

3.  'Tis  I,  Hamlet  the  Dane.— Shakspeare. 

4.  This  is  my  son,  mine  own  Tdemachus. — Tennyson. 

5.  There,  swinging  wide  at  her  moorings,  lay 
The  Somerset,  British  man-of-war — 

A  phantom  ship. — Longfellow. 

6.  Be  a  hero  in  the  strife.—  Longfellow. 

7.  Discretion  is  the  better  part  of  valor.—  Shakspeare. 

8.  There  were  two  fathers  in  this  ghastly  crew. — Byron. 

9.  Brevity  is  the  soul  of  wit. — Shakspeare. 

10.  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man.— Pope. 

11.  The  principle  which  gave  a  peculiar  coloring  to  Isabella's  mind  VMS  piety 

— Prescott. 

12.  And  the  earth  was  all  rest,  and  the  air  was  all  love.— Shelley. 

13.  Others,  their  blue  eyes  with  tears  o'erflowing, 
Stand,  like  Ruth,  amid  the  golden  com.— Longfellow. 

14.  The  hill-range  stood 
Transfigured  in  the  silver  flood, 

Its  blown  snows  flashing  cold  and  keen. — Whittier. 

15.  Success  being  hopeless,  preparations  were  made  for  a  retreat. — Alison. 

16.  Uriel,  no  wonder  if  thy  perfect  sight, 

Amid  the  sun's  bright  circlet  where  thou  sitt'st, 
See  far  and  wide.—  Milton. 

17.  Rise,  crowned  with  light,  imperial  Salem,  rise !—  Pope. 

18.  With  that  she  fell  distract, 

And,  her  attendants  absent,  swallowed  fire. — Shakspeare. 

19.  The  war  being  ended,  the  soldiers  returned  to  their  homes. 

20.  Listen,  my  children,  and  you  shall  hear 

Of  the  midnight  ride  of  Paul  Revere.—  Longfellow. 

21.  O  Caledonia  !  stern  and  wild, 
Meet  nurse  for  a  poetic  child. 

Land  of  brown  heath  and  shaggy  wood, 
Land  of  the  mountain  and  the  flood. — Scott. 

22.  O  lonely  tomb  in  Moab's  land, 

O  dark  Bethpeor's  hill, 
Speak  to  these  curious  hearts  of  ours 
And  teach  them  to  be  still. — Anon. 

23.  The  antechambers  were  crowded  all  night  with  lords  and  councillors. — 

Macaulay. 

24.  Home  they  brought  her  warrior  dead. — Tennyson. 

25.  Patrick  Henry  was  nearly  six.  feet  high.—  Wirt. 

26.  Not  without  deep  solicitude  I  saw  the  angry  clouds  gathering  in  the 

horizon,  north  and  south. — Everett. 

27.  He  that  was  dead  came  forth  bound  hand  and/ooZ. — Hible. 

28.  You  came  three  times  last  week,  but  did  you  come  the  nearest  way? 

29.  Awake,  my  St.  John,  leave  all  meaner  things. — Pope. 

30.  Milton,  thou  shouldst  be  with  us  at  this  hour.—  Wordsworth. 


108  ETYMOLOGY. 


II.   THE 

I.  USES. 

176,  Of  the  nine  uses  of  the  noun,  the  pronoun  has  all 
except  that  of  the  objective  adverbial  ;  but  one  class  of  pro- 
nouns, the  relatives,  have  an  office  distinct  from  the  noun  :- 
namely,  the  office  of  a  connective  : 

I.  Subject  of  a  verb  :  thus  — 

1.  J  know  a  bank  whereon  the  wild  thyme  grows. 

2.  We  looked  on  him  as  he  lay  wounded  on  the  ground. 

3.  Some  murmur  when  their  sky  is  clear. 

II.  Possessive:  thus  — 

1.  He  knows  his  rights. 

2.  Whose  is  this  image  and  superscription  ? 

III.  Object  of  a  verb  :  thus— 

1.  Take  her  up  tenderly. 

2.  He  taught  you  how  you  might  conquer  them. 

3.  Whom  do  you  mean  ?     What  are  you  doing  ? 

IV.  Indirect  object  :  thus  — 

1.  Tell  him  not  to  vex  her. 

2.  The  master  gave  them  one  dollar  each. 

V.  Phrase  use  —  object  of  a  preposition  :  thus  — 

1.  To  whom  much  is  given,  of  them  much  is  required. 

2.  With  malice  toward  none,  with  charity  for  all. 

VI.  Predicate  nominative  :  thus  — 

1.  It  is  7,  be  not  afraid. 

2.  Those  lips  are  thine. 

3.  Who  say  ye  that  I  am  ? 

VII.  Appositive:  thus  — 
We  all  do  fade  as  a  flower. 

NOTE.—  This  construction  is  rare. 


THE  PRONOUN.— ITS    USES.  1Q9 

VIII.  Independent  or  absolute :  thus — 

1.  O  Thou  that  rollest  above,  round  as  the  shield  of  my  fathers. 

2.  We  being  mounted,  the  cavalcade  advanced. 

IX.  Connective. — The  relative  pronouns  serve  to  connect 
the  dependent  proposition,  which  they  introduce,  with  some 
wrord  or  words  in  the  principal  statement  of  the  sentence : 
thus— 

1.  Longfellow  is  the  poet  who  wrote  "  Evangeliue." 

2.  I  had  a  dream  which  was  not  all  a  dream. 

3.  Solomon  was  the  wisest  man  that  ever  lived. 

In  sentence  1  "Longfellow  is  the  poet"  is  the  principal  statement;  "  who 
wrote  * Evangeline '  "  is  a  clause;  the  relative  "who"  connects  the  clause 
with  the  antecedent  "poet." 

In  like  manner  in  sentence  2  "which"  connects  the  clause  that  it  intro- 
duces with  the  antecedent  "dream;"  and  in  3  "that"  connects  the  clause 
that  it  introduces  with  the  antecedent  "man." 

Relative  "  What." — The  relative  what  is  often  parsed  by  separat- 
ing it  into  that  which,  and  then  disposing  of  each  of  these  words 
according  to  its  use  in  the  sentence.  But  it  is  preferable  to 
parse  wJiat  itself  as  subject  of  a  verb  or  object  of  a  verb  (or 
preposition),  and  then  treat  as  a  whole  the  clause  introduced 
by  what* 


II.  PARSING. 

177,  Personal  Pronouns, — In  parsing  a  personal  pronoun, 
«tate — 

1.  Class. 

2.  Person :  first,  second,  or  third. 

3.  Gender :  (if  of  the  3d  person). 

4.  Number :  singular  or  plural. 

5.  Case :  nominative,  [possessive]  or  objective. 

6.  Use. 

*  What  is  simply  the  neuter  of  who,  with  its  antecedent  (that)  omitted ;  just 
as  the  antecedent  of  who  is  sometimes  omitted.  Thus  the  function  of  who  and 
of  what  is  precisely  alike  in  the  sentences  "  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash" 
and  "  What  is  done  cannot  be  undone." 


HO  ETYMOLOGY. 

NOTE. — The  forms  my,  thy,  his,  etc.,  are  most  readily  disposed  of  as  adjec- 
tives (or  possessive  adjectives);  the  independent  forms  mine,  thine,  etc.,  as 
possessive  pronouns  in  the  nominative  or  objective  case,  according  to  the  con- 
struction. 

178,  Relative  Pronouns. — In  parsing  a  relative  pronoun, 
state — 

1.  Class. 

2.  Antecedent :  noun  (or  its  equivalent  pronoun,  etc.). 

3.  Person :  first,  second,  or  third. 

4.  Gender :  masculine,  feminine  [common],  or  neuter. 

5.  Number :  singular  or  plural. 

6.  Case :  nominative,  possessive,  or  objective. 

7.  Use. 

NOTE. — A  relative  pronoun  is  in  the  same  person,  gender,  and  number  as 
its  antecedent.  * 

179,  Interrogative  Pronouns,— In  parsing  an  interroga- 
tive pronoun,  state — 

1.  Class. 

2.  Gender :  masculine,  feminine  [common],  or  neuter  (according  to 
the  gender  of  the  noun  that  answers  the  question). 

3.  Number :  singular  or  plural. 

4.  Case :  nominative,  possessive,  or  objective. 

5.  Use. 


Models  for  Parsing  Pronouns. 

1.  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash :  'tis  something,  nothing — 
'Twas  mine,  'tis  his,  and  has  been  slave  to  thousands. 
But  he  that  filches  from  me  my  good  name 
Robs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him, 
And  makes  me  poor  indeed. 

who is  a  relative  pronoun  (used  independently  of  an  antece- 
dent),* of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine 
gender,  and  nominative  case — subject  of  the  verb  "  steals." 


*  Or  having  he  understood,  for  its  antecedent. 


THE  PRONOUN.-RELATIVE  AND  INTERROGATIVE. 

it (contracted  '£  in  "  'tis")  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third 

person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and  nominative 
case— subject  of  the  verb  "is." 

it (in  "  'twas  "  and  "  %"  is  to  be  parsed  in  a  similar  manner). 

mine is  a  pronominal  adjective  (possessive)*  of  the  first  person, 

singular  number,  masculine  gender,  and  nominative  case — 
predicate  nominative  after  the  intransitive  verb  "  was." 

his (parsed  in  a  similar  manner  as  to  gender,  case,  and  use). 

he is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, masculine  gender,  and  nominative  case — subject  of  the 
verb  "robs." 

that is  a  relative  pronoun,  having  for  its  antecedent  the  pro- 
noun "  he,"  of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  masculine 
gender,  and  nominative  case— subject  of  the  verb  "  filches." 

me is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular  num- 
ber, masculine  gender,f  and  objective  case  —  depending  on 
the  preposition  "  from." 

me is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular  number, 

masculine  gender,  and  objective  case — object  of  the  verb 
"  robs." 

that is  a  pronominal  adjective  (demonstrative), \  of  the  third 

person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and  objective  case 
—depending  on  the  preposition  "  of." 

which is  a  relative  pronoun,  having  for  its  antecedent  "that;" 

of  the  third  person,  singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and 
nominative  case — subject  of  the  verb  "  enriches." 

him...; is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, masculine  gender,  and  objective  case — object  of  the 
verb  "  enriches." 

me is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular  number, 

masculine  gender,  and  objective  case — object  of  the  verb 
"  leaves." 

*  Or,  simply,  a  possessive  pronoun. 

t  As  the  person  speaking,  in  this  passage  from  Shakspeare's  play  of  Othello^ 
was  a  man,  the  pronoun  "me"  is  of  the  masculine  gender. 
\  Or,  simply,  a  demonstrative  pronoun. 


112  ETYMOLOGY. 

2.  The  messenger  himself  revealed  the  treachery. 

himself.... is  a  compound  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular number,  masculine  gender,  and  nominative  case — 
in  apposition  with  the  noun  "  messenger." 

3.  O  Thou*  that  rollest  above,  round  as  the  shield  of  my  fathers ! 
thou is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  second  person,  singular  num- 
ber, (masculine  gender),  and  nominative  case — nominative 
independent. 

that is  a  relative  pronoun,  having  for  its  antecedent  the  pro- 
noun "Thou,"  of  the  second  person,  singular  number,  (mas- 
culine gender),  and  nominative  case — subject  of  the  verb 
"  rollest." 

4.  I  shall  not  lag  behind,  nor  err 
The  way,  thou  leading. 

I is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular  number, 

(gender  indeterminate),  and  nominative  case — subject  of 
the  verb  "  shall  lag." 

thou is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  second  person,  singular  num- 
ber (gender  indeterminate),  and  nominative  case — nomina- 
tive absolute. 


EXERCISE    18. 

Parse  etymologically  the  italicized  pronouns  in  the  fol- 
bwing  sentences: 

1.  We  can  show  you  where  he  lies. — Scott. 

2.  Surely,  said  /,  man  is  but  a  shadow,  and  life  a  dream. — Addison. 

3.  Each  thought  on  the  woman  who  loved  him  be&t.—Kingsley. 

4.  /could  hear  my  friend  chide  him  for  not  finding  out  some  work;  but 

at  the  same  time  saw  him  put  his  hand  in  his  pocket  and  give  him 
sixpence. — Spectator. 

5.  Not  to  know  me  argues  yourself  unknown. — Milton. 

6.  Teach  me  thy  statutes.—  Bible. 

7.  There  taught  us  how  to  live,  and  (oh  !  too  high 

The  price  for  knowledge)  taught  us  how  to  die.— Tickell. 

8.  Methought  my  request  was  heard,  for  it  seemed  to  me  as  though  the 

stains  of  manhood  were  passing  from  me,  and  /  were  relapsing  into 
the  purity  and  simplicity  of  childhood.— Lamb. 

*  The  sun. 


THE  ADJECTIVE.— PARSING.  113 

9.  /know  not  what  course  others  may  take;  but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty 
or  give  me  death. — Patrick  Henry. 

10.  Who  was  the  thane  lives  jet.—Shakspeare. 

11.  What  in  me  is  dark, 
Illumine ;  what  is  low,  raise  and  support.—  Milton. 

12.  I  had  a  dream  which  was  not  all  a  dream. — Byron. 

13.  Ah  !  little  they  think  who  delight  in  the  strains, 
How  the  heart  of  the  minstrel  is  breaking.—  Moore. 

14.  Oh  that  those  lips  had  language  !    Life  has  passed 
With  me  but  roughly  since  I  heard  thee  last. 
Those  lips  are  thine— thy  own  sweet  smile  I  see, 
The  same  that  oft  in  childhood  solaced  me. — Cowper. 

15.  Who  would  fardels  bear  ? — Shakspeare. 

16.  Koll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  Ocean,  roll ! — Byron. 

17.  Those  who  came  to  laugh  remained  to  pray.— Goldsmith. 

18.  We  two  set  upon  you  four. — Shakspeare. 

19.  England  herself  will  sooner  treat  for  peace  with  us  on  a  footing  of  inde- 

pendence.— John  Adams. 

20.  O  ye  Romans,  you  are  poor  slaves. — Shakspeare. 

21.  What  do  you  mean,  you  blockhead  ? 

22.  On  these  and  kindred  thoughts  intent  I  lay 
In  silence  musing  by  my  comrade's  side, 
He  [being]  also  silent.— Wordsworth. 

23.  Thou  away,  the  very  birds  are  mute. — Shakspeare. 

24.  God  from  the  Mount  of  Sinai,  whose  gray  top 
Shall  tremble,  he  descending,  will  himself 
Ordain  them  laws.—  Milton. 


III.  THE   ADJECTIVE. 

I.  PARSING. 

180 1  An  adjective  is  parsed  etyinologically  by  stating — 

1.  Its  class  —  limiting  (article,  pronominal  adjective,  or  numeral 
adjective)  or  qualifying. 

2.  Its  degree  of  comparison  (that  is,  if  comparative  or  superla- 
tive, and  omitting  comparison  if  positive). 

3.  Its  use  (see  below). 

II.  USES   OF  THE  ADJECTIVE. 

181.  The  two  principal  relations  of  the  adjective  are — 
1.  The  attributive  relation.     2.  The  predicative  relation. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

I,  Attributive, — In  the  attributive  relation  or  use  the 
adjective  is  closely  joined  with  its  noun  or  pronoun,  and  is 
never  separated  from  it  by  a  verb.*  Thus — 

1.  Now  Morn,  her  rosy  steps  in  the  eastern  clime 
Advancing,  sowed  the  earth  with  orient  pearl. 

2.  They  the  holy  ones  and  weakly 
Who  the  cross  of  suffering  bore. 

I.  In  parsing  an  adjective  in  the  attributive  use  this  function 
need  not  be  specified;  it  is  enough  to  say  that  the  adjective 
modifies  the  noun  or  pronoun  [naming  it]   with  which  it  is 
joined. 

II.  An  adjective   sometimes  modifies  a  noun  which  is  already 
modified  by  another  adjective:   as,  "A  pretty  wooden  bowl." 
Here  pretty  does  not  relate  to  "  bowl "  separately,  but  to  the 
words  "  wooden-bowl."     In  such  instances  the  remote  adjective 
may  be  parsed  as  modifying  the  noun  and  proximate  adjective 
as  one  compound  term. 

Models  of  Parsing. 

1.  Around  the  fire  one  wintry  night 
The  farmer's  rosy  children  sat. 

the is  the  definite  article,  modifying  the  noun  "fire." 

one is  a  limiting   adjective  (numeral),  modifying  the  noun 

"  night." 
wintry  ....is  a  qualifying  adjective,  modifying  the  noun  "  night." 

the is  the  definite  article,  modifying  the  noun  "farmer's.''! 

rosy is  a  qualifying  adjective, modifying  the  noun  "children." 

2.  I  met  a  little  cottage  girl. 

a is  the  indefinite  article,  modifying  the  noun  "girl." 

little is  a  qualifying  adjective,  modifying  the  noun  "girl"  as 

modified  by  the  adjective  "  cottage." 
cottage... is  a  noun  used  as  an  adjective, modifying  the  noun  "girl." 

*  This  is  called  the  attributive  use  because  an  adjective  thus  employed  ex- 
presses some  attribute  or  property  represented  as  inherent  in  the  object  named 
by  the  noun.  The  attribute  or  property  is  not  predicated  or  asserted  of  the 
noun,  but  is  assumed  as  belonging  to  it. 

t  Or,  modifying  the  complex  expression  "farmer's  rosy  children." 


THE  ADJECTIVE.— EXERCISES.  115 

3.  They  the  holy  ones  and  weakly 
Who  the  cross  of  suffering  bore. 

holy is  a  qualifying  adjective,  modifying  the  noun  "  ones." 

weakly... .is  a  qualifying  adjective,  modifying  the  noun  "  ones." 

4.  His  opinion  would  have  greater  weight,  were  it  supported  by 

some  arguments  of  the  least  value. 

his is  a  limiting  adjective  (possessive),  modifying  the  noun 

"  opinion." 

greater.... is  a  qualifying  adjective,  in  the  comparative  degree  (com- 
pared great,  greater,  greatest),  modifying  the  noun  "  weight." 

some is  a  limiting  adjective  (indefinite),  modifying  the  noun 

"  arguments." 

least is  a  qualifying  adjective,  in  the  superlative  degree  (com- 
pared little,  less,  least),  modifying  the  noun  "  value." 


EXERCISE    19. 

Parse  etymologically  the  italicized  adjectives  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences: 

1.  I  am  fond  of  loitering  about  country  churches,  and  this  was  so  delight- 

fully situated  that  it  frequently  attracted  me.  It  stood  on  a  knoll, 
round  which  a  small  stream  made  a  beautiful  bend,  and  then  wound  its 
way  through  a  long  reach  of  soft  meadow  scenery.  The  church  was  sur- 
rounded by  yew-trees,  which  seemed  almost  coeval  with  itself.  Its  tall 
Gothic  spire  shot  up  lightly  from  among  them,  with  rooks  and  crows 
generally  wheeling  about  it. —  Washington  Irving. 

2.  There  eternal  summer  dwells, 
And  west  winds  with  musky  wing 
About  the  cedar* d  alleys  fling 

Nard  and  cassia's  balmy  smells. — Milton. 

3.  Three  fishers  went  sailing  away  to  the  Wesi.—Kingsley. 

4.  Roll  on,  thou  deep  and  dark  blue  Ocean,  roll  I— Byron. 

5.  For  of  all  sad  words  of  tongue  or  pen, 

The  saddest  are  these — "  It  might  have  been." — Whiltier. 

6.  Our  sweetest  songs  are  those  that  tell  of  saddest  thought. — Shelley. 

7.  Like  other  dull  men,  the  king  was  all  his  life  suspicious  of  superior  peo 

pie. — Thackeray. 

8.  And  first  review  that  long,  extended  plain, 

And  those  wide  groves  already  passed  with  pain. — Collins. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

9.  Each  ivied  arch  and  pillar  lone 

Pleads  haughtily  for  glories  gone. — Byron. 

10.  If  disastrous  war  should  sweep  our  commerce  from  the  ocean,  another 
generation  may  renew  it ;  if  it  exhaust  our  treasurjT,  future  industry 
may  replenish  it ;  if  it  desolate  and  lay  waste  our  fields,  still,  under  a 
new  cultivation,  they  will  grow  green  again,  and  ripen  to  future  har- 
vests. It  were  but  a  trifle,  even  if  the  wall  of  yonder  Capitol  were  to 
crumble,  if  its  lofty  pillars  should  fall,  and  its  gorgeous  decorations  be 
all  covered  by  the  dust  of  the  valley.  All  these  might  be  rebuilt.  But 
who  shall  reconstruct  the  fabric  of  demolished  government  ?  Who  shall 
rear  again  the  well-proportioned  columns  of  constitutional  liberty  ?  Who 
shall  frame  together  the  skilful  architecture  which  unites  national 
sovereignty  with  state  rights,  individual  security,  and  public  prosperity  ? 
No ;  if  these  columns  fall,  they  will  be  raised  not  again.  Like  the  Coli- 
seum and  the  Parthenon,  they  will  be  destined  to  a  mournful,  a  melan- 
choly immortality.  Bitterer  tears,  however,  will  flow  over  them  than 
ever  were  shed  over  the  monuments  of  Roman  or  Grecian  art ;  they 
will  be  the  remnants  of  a  more  glorious  edifice  than  Greece  or  Rome 
ever  saw— the  edifice  of  constitutional  American  liberty !—  Webster. 


Hi  Predicative, — In  the  predicative  use*  the  adjective 
has  a  double  office : 

1.  It  may  be  the  complement  of  an  intransitive  verb ;  or 
of  a  transitive  verb  in  the  passive  voice.  It  is  then  called 
&e  predicate  adjective.  Thus — 

1.  The  fields  are  green. 

2.  The  nation  became  powerful. 

3.  Mary  looks  cold. 

4.  Some  men  are  called  happy. 

In  this  use  the  adjective  relates  to  the  subject  of  the  verb ; 
but  this  relation  is  indirect ;  the  adjective,  taken  with  the 
verb,  expresses  the  condition  of  the  subject. 

In  parsing  an  adjective  thus  used,  it  should  be  stated  that  it  is 
the  complement  of  the  verb  [naming  it],  and  relates  to  the  sub- 
ject. Or  it  may  simply  be  called  the  predicate  adjective. 

*  An  adjective  in  the  predicative  relation  must  not  be  confounded  with  an 
attributive  adjective  in  the  predicate,  and  associated  with  a  noun  or  pronoun: 
as,  "Here  are  green  fields."  An  adjective  is  in  the  predicative  relation  when 
it  completes  the  sense  of  the  verb,  and  is  not  joined  directly  to  a  noun  or 
pronoun. 


THE  ADJECTIVE.— PREDICATIVE.  117 

2.  It  may  relate  to  a  noun -complement  of  a  transitive 
verb,  and  be  at  the  same  time  a  partial  complement  of  the 
verb. 

1.  We  call  the  proud  happy. 

2.  The  streams  whereof  shall  make  glad  the  city  of  God. 

In  this  use  the  adjective,  taken  with  the  verb,  expresses 
the  condition  of  the  object. 

In  parsing  an  adjective  thus  used,  it  should  be  stated  that  it  is 
the  complement  of  the  transitive  verb  [naming  it],  and  relates 
to  the  object. 

Model  for  Parsing. 

1.  The  fields  are  green. 

green is  a  qualifying  adjective,  the  complement  of  the  intransi- 
tive verb  "are,"  and  relates  to  the  subject  "fields"  (or, 
it  is  the  predicate  adjective  after  "are,"  and  relates  to 
"fields"). 

2.  Some  men  are  called  happy. 

some is  a  pronominal  adjective,  and  modifies  the  noun  "men." 

happy is  a  qualifying  adjective,  the  complement  of  the  passive 

verb  "  are  called,"  and  relates  to  the  subject  "  men." 

3.  Leave  the  lily  pale,  and  tinge  the  violet  blue. 

pale is  a  qualifying  adjective,  the  complement  of  the  transitive 

verb  " leave,"  and  relates  to  the  object  "lily." 

blue is  a  qualifying  adjective,  the  complement .  of  the  transitive 

verb  "  tinge,"  and  relates  to  the  object  "  violet." 


EXERCISE    20, 

Parse  etymologically  the  italicized  adjectives  in  the  fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1.  The  rainbow  comes  and  goes, 
And  lovely  is  the  rose ; 
The  moon  doth  with  delight 

Look  round  her  when  the  heavens  are  bare; 
V/aters  on  a  starry  night 

Are  beautiful  and/ai?\ — Wordsworth. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

2.  "O,  sir,"  said  the  good  woman,  "he  was  such  a  likely  lad — so  sweet-tem- 

pered^ so  kind  to  every  one  around  him,  so  dutiful  to  his  parents. — 
Washington  Irving. 

3.  The  stately  homes  of  England, 
How  beautiful  they  stand. — Hemans. 

4.  Why  call  ye  me  good?— Bible. 

5.  Or,  if  a  path  be  dangerous  known, 
The  danger's  self  is  lure  alone.— Scott. 

6.  Come  when  the  heart  beats  high  and  warm. — Halleck. 

7.  Thus,  from  afar,  each  dim-discovered  scene 

More  pleasing  seems  than  all  the  past  have  been. — Campbell. 

8.  By  heaven,  I  change 
My  thought,  and  hold  thy  valor  light, 

As  that  of  some  vain  carpet-knight. — Scott. 


IV.  THE    VEKB. 

182,  In  regard  to  their  use  in  sentences,  verbs  may  be 
divided  into  two  classes :  1.  FINITE  VERBS.    2.  THE  VERBALS. 

The  radical  distinction  between  verbs  and  verbals  is  that  verbs 
are  used  in  predication,  and  that  verbals  are  not  so  used. 

I.  FINITE   VERBS. 

183,  Parsing, — A  finite  verb  is  parsed  as  agreeing  with 
its  subject  in  person  and  in  number.*     Its  etymology  is 
given  thus : 

1.  Its  conjugation — regular  or  irregular. 

2.  Its  class — transitive  or  intransitive. 

3.  Its  yoice — active  or  passive  (if  transitive ;  no  mention  is  made 
of  voice  in  intransitive  verbs). 

4.  Its  mood — indicative,  potential,  subjunctive,  or  imperative. 

5.  Its  tense — present,  past,  future,  etc.     (In  the  imperative,  tense 
may  be  omitted.) 

6.  Its  person  and  number  —  first,  second,  or  third,  and  singular 
or  plural,  according  to  the  person  and  number  of  the  subject. 

*  This  coincides  with  the  syntactical  rule  for  verbs :  its  introduction  here 
is  necessary,  since,  from  the  paucity  of  personal  endings  in  English  verbs,  the 
person  and  number  of  a  verb  can  generally  be  determined  only  by  reference  to 
the  person  and  number  of  its  subject. 


THE   VERB.— PARSING. 

NOTE.— If  a  verb  is  in  the  progressive,  interrogative,  or  emphatic  form,  this 
may  be  noted ;  if  in  the  common  form,  nothing  need  be  said  as  to  form. 

Models  for  Parsing. 

1.  Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers 
Life  is  but  an  empty  dream. 

tell is  an  irregular  transitive  verb,*  active  voice,  imperative 

mood,  second  person,  singular  number,  agreeing  with 
its  subject  you,  understood. 

An  abbreviated  form  like  the  following  may  be  found  serviceable : 
"  Tell,"  a  verb,  irregular,  transitive,  active,  imperative,  second  singu- 
lar, agreeing  with  you  understood. 

is is  an   irregular   intransitive  verb,  indicative   mood, 

present  tense,  third  person,  singular  number,  agree- 
ing with  its  subject  "  life." 

2.  The  boast  of  heraldry,  the  pomp  of  power, 

And  all  that  beauty,  all  that  wealth  e'er  gave, 
Await  alike  th'  inevitable  hour. 

The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave. 

gave is  an  irregular  transitive  verb,  active  voice,  indicative 

mood,  past  tense,  third  person,  singular  number,  agree- 
ing with  its  subject tl  wealth." 

await is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  active  voice,  indicative 

mood,  present  tense,  third  person,  plural  number, 
agreeing  with  its  subjects  "  boast,"  "  pomp,"  and  "  all." 

lead is  an  irregular  intransitive  verb,  indicative  mood,  pres- 
ent tense,  third  person,  plural  number,  agreeing  with 
its  subject  "paths." 

3.  I  do  believe  that  the  lad  was  telling  the  truth. 

do  believe is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  emphatic  form,  active 

voice,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  first  person,  sin- 
gular number,  agreeing  with  its  subject  "  I." 

was  telling.... is  an  irregular  transitive  verb,  progressive  form,  in- 
dicative mood,  past  tense,  third  person,  singular  num- 
ber, agreeing  with  its  subject  "lad." 

*  Transitive  because  it  requires  an  object :  the  object  is  the  clause  "  [that] 
life  is  but  an  empty  dream ;"  "  me  "  is  the  indirect  object. 


120  ETYMOLOGY. 


EXERCISE    21. 

Parse  etymologically  the  italicized  verbs  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  people 

to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with  another, 
and  to  assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate  and  equal 
station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God  entitle  them,  a 
decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that  they  should 
declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. — Declaration  of 
Independence. 

2.  Then  shrieked  the  timid. — Byron. 

3.  The  grave  is  the  ordeal  of  true  affection. — W.  Irving. 

4.  So  hard  a  winter  had  [not]  been  known  for  years. — Milman. 

5.  When  that  the  poor  have  cried,  Caesar  hath  wept.—Shakspeare. 

6.  Each  thought  o,n  the  woman  who  loved  him  best. — Kingdey. 

7.  Don't  flatter*  yourselves  that  friendship  authorizes  you  to  say  disagree- 

able things  to  your  intimates.  On  the  contrary,  the  nearer  you  come 
into  relation  with  a  person,  the  more  necessary  do  [tact  and  courtesy7] 
become.  Except  in  cases  of  necessity,  which  are  rare,  leave  your  friend 
to  learn  unpleasant  truths  from  his  enemies ;  they  are  ready  enough  to 
tell  them.  Good -breeding  never  forgets  that  self-love  is  universal. 
When  you  read  the  story  of  the  Archbishop  and  Gil  Bias,  you  may 
laugh,  if  you  will,  at  the  poor  old  man's  delusion ;  but  don't  forget  that 
the  youth  was  the  greater  fool  of  the  two,  and  that  his  master  served  such 
a  booby  rightly  in  turning  him  out  of  doors. — Oliver  Wendell  Holmes. 

8.  Holy  and  heavenly  thoughts  shall  counsel  her. — Shakspeare. 

9.  Then  rose  from  sea  to  sky  the  wild  farewell. -^Byron. 

10.  The  better  part  of  valor  is  discretion.— Shakspeare. 

11.  At  this  sultry  noontide,  I  am  cupbearer  to  the  parched  populace,  for 

whose  benefit  an  iron  goblet  is  chained  to  my  waist.  Like  a  dram- 
seller  on  the  mall,  at  muster-day,  I  cry  aloud  to  all  and  sundry,  in  my 
plainest  accents,  and  at  the  very  tiptop  of  my  voice,  Here  it  is,  gentle- 
men !  Here  is  the  good  liquor !  Walk  up,  walk  up,  gentlemen ;  walk 
up,  walk  up  ! — Hawthorne. 

12.  The  public  opinion  of  the  civilized  world  is  [rapidly]  gaining  an  ascend- 

ency over  mere  brute  force.  It  may  be  silenced  by  military  power,  but 
it  can  [not]  be  conquered. — Webster. 

13.  In  words,  as  fashions,  the  same  rule  will  hold, 
Alike  fantastic  if  too  new  or  old ; 

Be  not  the  first  by  whom  the  new  is  tried, 
Nor  yet  the  last  to  lay  the  old  aside.— Pope. 

*  Parse  "do  flatter." 


THE   VERB.—  VERBALS.  121 


II.  VERBALS. 
I.  The  Infinitive. 

184,  The  infinitive  may  be  used  as  — 

I.  A  noun.     As  a  noun  an  infinitive  may  serve  as  — 

1.  The  subject  of  a  verb:  as,  "  To  walk  [or,  walking]  is  healthy." 

2.  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  :  as,  "  I  like  to  walk  [or,  walk- 
ing}" 

II.  An  adjective.     In  this  use  the  infinitive  may  serve 
as  — 

1.  The  complement  of  an  intransitive  or  of  a  passive  verb  :   as, 
"He  appeared  to  comply;'1''  "Your  mistake  is  to  fo  deplored" 
^deplorable)  ;  "  He  is  to  Name"  =.  (blameworthy). 

2.  An  attributive   adjective  relating  to  a  noun:   as,  "water  to 
drink  "  (=dnnMng--WB,ter  ;  here  "  drinking  "  is  a  gerund)  ;  "  a 
time  to  laugh;"  "  permission  to  speak." 

III.  An  adverb,  modifying  a  verb  or  an  adjective  :  thus  — 

1.  I  have  come  to  see  you. 

2.  I  am  sorry  to  hear  this. 

185,  A  gerund,  also,  may  be  used  as  the  object  of  a  prep- 
osition, thus  forming  an   adjective    or   adverbial  phrqse: 
as  — 

1.  Benjamin  West  had  as  a  boy  a  talent  for  painting. 

2.  Bees  are  skilful  in  'building  their  hives. 

3.  By  working  hard  we  improve. 

186,  In  parsing  an  infinitive,  state  — 

1.  Its  kind  —  ordinary  infinitive  or  gerund. 

2.  Whether  simple  or  compound. 

3.  Its  use  —  as  noun,  adjective,  or  adverb. 

Models  for  Parsing. 

1.  To  learn  is  a  task  indeed. 
to  learn  ............  is  a  simple  infinitive,  used  as  a  noun,  and  subject  of 

the  verb  "  is." 


122  ETYMOLOGY. 

2.  Talking  overmuch  is  a  sign  of  vanity. 

talking is  the  simple  gerund  of  the  verb  talk,  used  as  a  noun, 

and  subject  of  the  verb  "is." 

3.  A  miser  is  to  be  pitied. 

to  be  pitied is  a  simple  infinitive,  used  as  adjective  complement 

of  the  verb  "  is,"  and  relating  to  "  miser." 

4.  We  are  all  striving  to  secure  happiness. 

to  secure =..is  a  simple  infinitive,  used  as  an  adverb,  modifying 

the  verb  "  are  striving."     ("Are  striving  to  secure  " 
=striving/0r  the  purpose  of  securing.) 

'  5.  We  are  happy  in  doing  our  duty. 

doing r...is  the  simple  gerund  of  the  verb  do,  used  as  a  noun, 

and  depending  on  the  preposition  "  in." 

6.  'Tis  better  to  have  loved  and  [to  have]  lost  than  never  to  have 
loved  at  all. 

to  have  loved.... is  a  compound  infinitive,  used  as  a  noun,  and  sub- 
ject of  "is"  (introduced  by  "it"). 

"  To  have  lost"  is  parsed  in  the  same  way;  "to  have  loved  (at  all)"  is  sub- 
ject of  is,  understood. 


II.  The  Participles. 

187.  Participles  are  attributive  words,  and  are  parsed,  like 
adjectives,  as  modifying  the  noun  or  pronoun  with  which 
they  are  joined  in  meaning. 

Models  for  Parsing. 

1 .  The  farmer  sat  in  his  easy-chair, 
Smoking  his  pipe  of  clay. 

2.  His  head,  bent  down,  on  her  soft  hair  lay ; 

Fast  asleep  were  they  both  on  that  summer  day. 

smoking... is  the  present  (active)  participle  of  the  regular  transitive 
verb  "smoke,"  modifying  the  noun  "  farmer." 


THE   VERB.— PARSING.  123 

bent is  the  past  (passive)  participle  of  the  irregular  transitive' 

verb  "  bend,"  modifying  the  noun  "  head." 


EXERCISE    22, 

Parse  etymologically  the  italicized  infinitives  and  par- 
ticiples in  the  following  sentences : 

1.  To  "be  virtuous  is  to  be  happy. 

2.  Seeing  is  believing. 

3.  I  remember  to  have  seen  William  at  the  Rink. 

4.  Philosophy  teaches  us  to  endure  afflictions. 

5.  Learn  to  labor  and  to  wait. 

6.  It  is  painful  to  see  an  animal  suffering. 

7.  His  having  failed  is  not  surprising. 

8.  I  recommended  turning  a  new  leaf. 

9.  Throwing  their  muskets  aside,  the  soldiers  rushed  on  the  foe. 

10.  Born  to  a  crown,  Louis  XVI.  died  on  the  scaffold. 

11.  They  wish  to  turn  him  from  keeping  bad  company. 

12.  What  we  always  put  off  doing  ^ 
Clearly  we  shall  never  do. 


V.  THE  ADVEEB. 

188,  A  simple  adverb  is  used  to  modify  the  word  with 
which  it  is  joined  in  meaning.     A  conjunctive  adverb  is 
used  both  as  a  modifier  and  as  a  connective. 

189,  In  parsing  an  adverb,  state- 
Its  class — simple,  conjunctive,  interrogative,  or  modal. 

Its  comparison  (if  comparative  or  superlative ;   otherwise  com- 
parison may  be  omitted). 
Its  use — as  above. 

Models  for  Parsing. 

1.  How  sweet  the  moonlight  sleeps  upon  this  bank! 
Here  will  we  sit,  and  let  the  sounds  of  music 
Creep  in  our  ears. 

how is  a  simple  adverb,  modifying  the  adjective  "  sweet." 


124:  ETYMOLOGY. 

here is  a  simple  adverb,  modifying  the  verb  "  will  sit." 

2.  Shall  I  be  frighted  when  a  madman  stares  ? 

when.. ..is  a  conjunctive  adverb,  modifying  the  verb  "stares,"  and 
connecting  the  clause  which  it  introduces  with  the  previous 
(principal)  proposition. 

3.  Where  are  the  songs  of  Spring  ? 

where  ...is  an  interrogative  adverb,  modifying  the  verb  "  are." 


EXERCISE    23. 

Parse  etymologically  the  italicized  adverbs  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences : 

1.  Washington  ate  heartily,  but  was  no  epicure.    He  took  tea,  of  which  he 

was  very  fond,  early  in  the  evening. — Irving. 

2.  Ill  fared  it  then  with  Roderick  Dhu.—  Scott. 

3.  Touch  her  not  scornfully! 
Think  of  her  mournfully, 
Gently  and  humanly. — Hood. 

4.  The  world  was  all  before  them  where  to  choose 

Their  place  of  rest,  and  Providence  their  guide. — Milton. 

5.  Thou,  too,  sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State  I— Longfellow. 

6.  And  when  above  the  surges 

They  saw  his  crest  appear, 
All  Rome  sent  forth  a  rapturous  cry, 
And  even  the  ranks  of  Tuscany 

Could  scarce  forbear  to  cheer. — Macaulay. 

7.  Why  should  we  shrink  from  what  we  cannot  shun  t—Bijron. 


VI.    THE   PREPOSITION,  CONJUNCTION,  AND 

INTERJECTION. 
I.  THE   PREPOSITION. 

190.  The  use  of  the  preposition  is  to  form  with  its  ob- 
ject a  phrase:  thus — 

1.  There  is  rest  for  the  weary. 

2.  Under  Tier  torn  hat  glowed  the  wealth 
Of  simple  leauty  and  [of]  rustic  health. 


THE  PREPOSITION,  CONJUNCTION,  AND   INTERJECTION.    125 

The  combination  of  words  formed  by  the  preposition  and  object 
is  termed  a  prepositional  phrase.  (This  is  to  distinguish  it  from 
&  participial  phrase;  see  §  218). 

191  •  In  parsing  a  preposition  proceed  as  follows: 

1.  Name  the  part  of  speech. 

2.  State  what  two  words  it  joins — naming  the  object  first. 
Model. — Around  the  rugged  rocks  the  ragged  rascal  ran. 

around... is  a  preposition,  and  joins  the  noun  "rocks"  to  the  verb 
"ran." 


EXERCISE    24. 

Parse  etymologically  the  prepositions  in  the  following 
sentences : 

1.  The  thunders  bellowed  over  the  wide  waste  of  waters. — Irving. 

2.  A  murmuring  whisper  through  the  nunnery  ran. — Tennyson. 

3.  He  goes  on  Sunday  to  the  church. — Longfellow. 

4.  I  seek  divine  simplicity  in  him 
Who  handles  things  divine. — Cowper. 

5.  He  starts  from  his  dream  at  the  blast  of  the  horn.  — Wilson. 

6.  Through  all  the  wild  October  days  the  clash  and  din  resounded  in  the 

air. — Dickens. 

7.  But  on  the  hill  the  golden-rod,  and  the  aster  in  the  wood, 

And  the  yellow  sunflower  by  the  brook,  in  autumn  beauty  stood. 

— Bryant. 

8.  There  is  a  special  providence  in  the  fall  of  a  sparrow. — Shakspeare. 

9.  The  paths  of  glory  lead  but  to  the  grave.— Gray. 

10.  In  the  spring  of  1493,  while  the  court  was  still  at  Barcelona,  letters  were 
received  from  Christopher  Columbus,  announcing  his  return  to  Spain, 
and  the  successful  achievement  of  his  great  enterprise,  by  the  dis- 
covery of  land  beyond  the  western  ocean. — Prescott. 


II.  THE    CONJUNCTION. 

192,  The  use  of  the  conjunction  is  to  connect  sentences 
and  the  elements  of  sentences — the  co-ordinate  conjunctions 
connecting  sentences  and  elements  of  equal  rank ;  and  the 
subordinate  conjunctions  connecting  dependent  with  princi- 
pal propositions. 


126  ETYMOLOGY. 

193,  In  parsing  a  conjunction,  state  (1)  its  class  and  (2) 
what  it  connects.  

EXERCISE    25. 

Parse  etymologically  the  italicized  conjunctions  in  the 
following  sentences: 

1.  When  my  time  was  expired,  I  worked  my  passage  home ;  and  glad  I  was 

to  see  Old-England  again,  because  I  loved  my  country.— Goldsmith. 

2.  Some  murmur  when  their  sky  is  clear, 

And  wholly  bright  to  view, 
If  one  small  speck  of  dark  appear 

In  their  great  heaven  of  blue. — Trench. 

3.  'Twas  noon, 
And  Helon  knelt  beside  a  stagnant  pool 
In  the  lone  wilderness. 

4.  Millions  of  spiritual  creatures  walk  thejearth  unseen, 
Both  when  we  wake  and  when  we  sleep.—  Milton. 


194,  The  Interjection,  —  The  interjection  is  parsed  by 
simply  naming  it :  it  has  no  grammatical  relations  in  the 
sentence. 


METHOD    OF    ABBREVIATED    PAUSING-. 


The  method  of  abbreviated  parsing  here  presented  is  based  on  the 
principle  of  enumerating  only  such  grammatical  forms  as  affect  the 
construction,  and  of  omitting  what  may  be  understood  in  the  terms 
of  statement ;  as,  singular  for  "  singular  number,"  indicative  for  "  in- 
dicative mood,"  etc. 

(NUMBER — singular  or  plural.    (Number  in  proper  nouns 
omitted). 
CASE — nominative,  possessive,  or  objective  (as  denoted  by 
form  or  use). 

Omitted:  CLASS,  PERSON,  and  GENDER— as  not  affecting  the  construction. 
When,  however,  a  noun  is  in  the  2d  or  3d  person,  the  fact  may  be  stated. 

CLASS — personal,  relative,  or  interrogative. 

PERSON — (in  personal  pronouns  ;  in  relative  pronouns 

of  the  1st  or  2d  person  only). 
NUMBER — singular  or  plural. 
Pronoun....      GENDER — (in  personal  pronouns  of  the  3d  person  singu« 

lar  only). 

CASE — (nominative  or  objective  as  denoted  by  use: 
possess! ves  to  be  parsed  as  adjectives  or  as 
pronominals,  nominative  or  objective). 

Omitted:  PERSON  in  all  but  the  personal  pronouns  and  in  relatives  of  1st 
and  2d  persons;  GENDER  in  all  but  the  personal  pronoun  of  the  3d  pers.  sing. 

f  CLASS — limiting  (pronominal)  or  qualifying. 
Adjective...  \  COMPARISON — (if  comparative  or  superlative). 
L  OFFICE — attributive  or  complementary. 

Omitted:  SUBDIVISIONS  of  limiting  adjectives;  DEGREE,  if  positive. 


128  METHOD   OF  ABBREVIATED  PARSING. 

CONJUGATION — regular  or  irregular. 
CLASS — transitive  or  intransitive. 
VOICE — (only  if  passive). 

Verb •{  MOOD — indicative,  potential,  etc. 

TENSE — present, past,  etc. 
PERSON— -first,  second,  or  third. 
.  NUMBER — singular  or  plural. 

(  CLASS — simple  or  conjunctive. 

COMPARISON — (if  comparative  or  superlative). 
*      OFFICE — (if  simple,  What  does  it  modify  ?     If  conjunc* 
tive,  What  propositions  does  it  connect  ? 

Prepositions.... words  connected. 
Conjunctions... words  or  propositions  connected. 

I.  MODEL  OF  ABBREVIATED  ORAL  PARSING. 

After  Wellington's  victory  at  Waterloo,  Napoleon,  the  Emperor  of 
France,  was  banished  to  St.  Helena,  a  desolate  island  in  the  At- 
lantic Ocean. 

after is  a  preposition,  connecting  "victory"  with  "was 

banished." 

Wellington's is  a  noun  in  the  possessive  case,  modifying  "vic- 
tory." 

victory is  a  noun  in  the  objective  singular,  depending  on 

"  after." 

at is  a  preposition,  connecting  "Waterloo"  with 

"  victory." 

Waterloo is  a  noun  in  the  objective  case,  depending  on  "at." 

Napoleon is  a  noun  in  the  nominative  case,  subject  of  "was 

banished."  , 

the is  a  limiting  adjective,  limiting  "Emperor." 

Emperor is  a  noun  in  the  nominative  singular,  in  apposition 

with  "  Napoleon." 

of. is  a  preposition,  connecting  "France"  with  "Em- 
peror." 


METHOD  OF  ABBREVIATED  PARSING. 


129 


was  banished is  a  regular  transitive  verb,  passive,  in  the  third 

person  singular,  past  indicative. 

to is   a  preposition,  connecting  "St.  Helena"  with 

"  was  banished." 

a is  a  limiting  adjective,  limiting  "island." 

desolate is  a  qualifying  adjective,  modifying  "island." 

island is  a  noun  in  the  objective  singular,  in  apposition 

with  "  St.  Helena." 

in is  a  preposition,  connecting  "Atlantic  Ocean"  with 

"  island." 

Atlantic  Ocean... is  a  noun  in  the  objective  singular,  depending  on 
"  in." 


II.  MODEL   OF  ABBREVIATED  WRITTEN  PARSING. 

Speech  is .  a  great  blessing  to  mankind ;  but,  alas  !  we  too  often 
pervert  it. 


Speech... 
is  

noun 
verb 

sing.,  nom. 
irreg.  intran.,  indie., 

subject  of  "is" 
agreeing  with  "Speech" 

a  

limiting  adj. 

pres.,  3d  sing. 

limiting  "blessing" 

great  
blessing., 
to. 

adjective 
noun 
preposition 

sing.,  nom. 

modifying  "blessing" 
complement  of  "is" 
connecting     "mankind" 

mankind., 
but  

noun 
conjunction 

sing.,  obj. 

and  "blessing" 
depending  on  "  to  " 
connecting  the  two  prop- 

alas !  

interjection 

ositions 

we  .         . 

pers.  pronoun 

1st  pers    pi    nom 

subject  of  "  pervert  " 

too  

adverb 

modifying  "  often  " 

often  
pervert.  .  . 

it  . 

adverb 
verb 

pers  pronoun 

reg.     trans.,     indie., 
pres.,  1st  pi. 
3d  pers   sin0*    neut 

modifying  "pervert" 
obicct  of  "  pervert  " 

obj. 

F2 


130  NOTES  ON  VARIABLE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

NOTES  ON  VARIABLE  PARTS  OF   SPEECH. 

[For  Reference.] 

a ARTICLE:  "a  beautiful  face." 

PREPOSITION  :  "  I  go  a-fishing." 
after* PREPOSITION  :  "  You  came  after  me." 

ADVERB:  (simple),  "You  came  soon  after;'1'1  (conjunctive)^ 

"  You  came  after  I  left."f 
above PREPOSITION  :  "  above  the  ground  ;"  "  above  mean  actions." 

ADVERB  :  "  that  rollest  above." 

ADJECTIVE  :  "  the  above  remarks ;"  "  the  above  rule." 

1.  The  adjective  use  of  "above"  is  generally  condemned  by  grammarians, 
but  it  seems  to  be  firmly  established. 

2.  The  metaphorical  application  of  "above,"  as  in  the  phrase  "above  com- 
prehension," readily  passes  over  to  the  meaning  more  than:  as,  "above  the 
price  of  rubies ; "  u  above  a  dozen  "  [dozen,  a  noun]. 

all ADJECTIVE  :  "All  men  are  mortal." 

PRONOMINAL  :  "  each  for  all,  all  for  each." 

NOUN:  "All  is  lost" 

ADVERB  :  "  all  round  the  world." 
any ADJECTIVE  :  "  any  age ;"  "  any  complaints." 

PRONOMINAL  :  "  Who  is  here  so  base  that  would  be  a  bond- 
man ?    If  any,  speak." 

ADVERB  :  "  Are  you  any  better  ?" 
asf ADVERB:  (simple)  "As  brave  as  a  lion." 

(Conjunctive)  "He  spoke  as  we  entered;"  "as  far  as  we 
can  see." 

*  Termed:  Continuative  conjunction  (Morrell).— Usually  called  a  conjunc- 
tion ;  better  an  adverb  (Mason). — Relative  adverb  or  subordinating  conjunction 
(Bain). 

t  In  older  English  the  usual  conjunctive  form  was  "after  that:"  as,  "  After 
that  I  was  turned  I  repented."—  Bible.  This  would  indicate  that,  in  its  con- 
nective office,  u  after"  is  a  preposition*  rather  than  a  conjunction,  the  construc- 
tion being  that  of  a  preposition  followed  by  a  noun-clause :  "  after  [that  I  was 
turned]." 

t  Termed:  Continuative  conjunction  (Morrell). — Conjunctive  or  connective 
adverb,  in  some  cases;  subordinative  conjunction  in  other  cases  (Mason).— 
Relative  or  conjunctive  adverb,  or  subordinating  conjunction  (Bain}. 


NOTES   ON  VARIABLE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

CONJUNCTION  :  "As  he  was  ambitious,  I  slew  him." 
PRONOMINAL  :  "  I  have  not  such  kind  treatment  as  I  used 
to  have  "  (—which  I  used  to  have). 

1.  "  As"  is  from  a  pronominal  root  (ail-so),  and  signifies  in  which  way  or  in 
that  way.    This  pronominal  sense  is  at  the  root  of  the  word  in  all  its  uses : 
thus,  "  brave  in  that  a  lion  [is  brave] ; "  "in  that  he  was  ambitious,  I  slew  him;" 
"  I  have  not  kind  treatment  [in  the  way]  in  which  I  used  to  have." 

2.  "As"  is  now  used  as  a  relative  only  in  correlation  with  a  preceding 
such  or  same;  but  the  vulgarism,  "This  is  the  boy  as  I  saw  yesterday"  is  an 
exemplification  of  its  original  pronominal  meaning. 

below PREPOSITION:  "high  life  ~below  stairs." 

ADVERB  :  "  Go  'below.'1'' 

NOUN  :  "  The  power  comes  from  'below.'1'1 
beside PREPOSITION  :  "  Sit  beside  me." 

ADVERB  :  "  Beloved  of  heaven  o'er  all  the  world  'beside.'11 

but PREPOSITION:  "All  lut  him  had  fled;"*  "None  knew  thee 

lut  to  love  thee." 

CONJUNCTION :  "I  go,  lut  I  return." 

ADVERB  :  "  'Tis  lut  [—only]  a  little  faded  flower;"  "  I  can 
~but  lament  the  result."t 

But  is  sometimes  used  with  the  force  of  a  negative  relative,  when  it  has  a 
negative  correlative :  as — 

There  is  no  fireside,  howsoe'er  defended, 
But  has  one  vacant  chair. — Longfellow. 

In  this  construction  "but"  is  equivalent  to  that .  .  .  not  or  who  .  .  .  not. 
This  force,  however,  it  acquires  through  ellipsis.  Thus,  in  Shakspeare,  "I 
found  no  man  but  he  was  true  to  me,"  where  but  as  a  preposition  governs  tne 
proposition  "he  was  true  to  me." 

*  "  But,"  as  thus  used,  is  a  true  preposition,  being  originally  be-out=without, 
or  except  (Anglo-Saxon  be-utan,  butan) ;  it  should  not  be  confounded  with  the 
conjunction  but.  To  such  an  extent  has  the  prepositional  use  of  "but"  been 
forgotten,  that  many  grammarians  regard  the  word  as  a  conjunction  only ;  they 
condemn  as  violations  of  grammar  the  constructions, 

There  was  no  one  present  but  me. 

They  all  went  away  but  Mm; 
substituting  but  I  and  but  he,  which  is  correcting  good  English  into  bad. 

t  The  adverbial  force  of  "but"  here  arises  from  the  ellipsis  of  a  negative. 
The  construction  was  originally,  "I  can  not  but  lament  the  result,"  "lament" 
being  an  infinitive  governed  by  the  preposition  "  but."  So,  "  That  I  may  have 
not  but  my  meat  and  drink." — Chaucer. 


132  NOTES  ON  VARIABLE  PARTS  OP"  SPEECH. 

else ADJECTIVE:  "any  one  else'1'1  (=any  other  one);   "nobody 

else"  (=no  other  body,  or  person). 
ADVERB  :  "  Where  else  can  such  fruits  be  found  ?" 
CONJUNCTION:  "He  must  be  sick,  else  he  would  have 

written  to  us."* 

enough....  AD  VERB  :  "  He  has  been  punished  enough.'1'1 
NOUN  :  "  We  have  had  enough  of  action." 
ADJECTIVE  :  "  We  have  not  enough  men  "  (adjective  in  use, 

though  really  a  noun  with  of  omitted). 
"  I  have  not  enough  men : "  adverb  in  position ;  adjective  in  use. 

fast ADJECTIVE  :  "  a  fast  horse." 

ADVERB:  "You  talk  fast.'1'1 

"Fast"  may  be  taken  as  a  type  of  a  considerable  class  of  monosyllabic  ad- 
jectives which  are  often  used  as  adverbs :  as,  u  to  work  hard"  "  to  speak  loud" 
"to  rise  high,"  etc.  In  Anglo-Saxon  and  early  English  the  adverbial  form 
was  marked  by  a  final  e,  as  hard  (adj.),  hard-e  (adv.).  When  this  e  became  silent 
and  was  dropped,  the  adverbial  form  became  identical  with  the  adjective. t 

for PREPOSITION:  "  He  works/0^  his  bread ;"  "for  us." 

CONJUNCTION:  "He  pressed  on,/<?r  his  ambition  was  still 
unsatisfied." 

full ADJECTIVE:  "  a  full  measure ;"  "full  satisfaction." 

ADVERB  :  "full  many  a  flower." 

hard ADJECTIVE :  " hard  wood ;"  " The  diamond  is  hard" 

ADVERB  :  "  The  lad  studies  hard;"  "  The  castle  stood  hard 
by  a  forest "  (adverb  modifying  adverbial  phrase  "  by 
a  forest"), 
however...  AD  VERB  :  "  Death  spares  none,  however  powerful." 

CONJUNCTION:  "However, he  was  not  inclined  to  take  that 
course ; "  "  That  course,  however,  he  was  not  inclined 
to  take." 

"However,"  as  a  co-ordinate  conjunction,  is  a  contraction  of  however  U  be, 
and  hence  is,  fundamentally,  adverbial. 

*  "  Else"  (anciently  written  elles)  is  the  genitive  (possessive)  case  of  an  Old- 
English  root  el  or  al,  meaning  other.  Its  various  meanings  go  back  to  this 
radical:  thus,  "any  one  else"— any  one  of  other ;  "where  else"=rwhere  of 
other  (places) ;  "  else  he  would  have  written "=of  other  (state  or  condition)  he 
would  have  written. 

t  Morris :  Historical  Grammar,  p.  190. 


NOTES  ON  VARIABLE  PARTS  OF  SPEECH.      133 

like VERB  :  "  I  like  a  rascal  to  be  punished." 

NOUN  :  "  I  ne'er  shall  look  upon  his  like  again." 
ADJECTIVE  :  "  The  boy  is  like  his  mother." 
ADVERB  :  "  He  talks  like  a  fool." 

Here  the  adverb  "like"  is  itself  modified  by  the  adverbial  phrase  "[to]  a 
fool." 

more ADJECTIVE:  " more  pudding ;"  "wore  books." 

ADVERB :  " more  beautiful ;"  "  Sleep  no  more" 
NOUN  :  "  He  is  seeking  for  more;"  "  Say  no  more." 

The  adjective  use  of  "  more"  comes  from  a  confusion  of  the  adverbial  use : 
i.  e.,  instead  of  saying  "  some  pudding  more,"  we  have  come  to  say  "  some  more 
pudding." 

near ADJECTIVE:  "the  now  approach  of  winter ;"  "Summer  is 

near" 

ADVERB  :  "  Come  near" 
PREPOSITION  :  "  He  sat  near  me." 

"Near"  was  originally  an  adjective,  but  acquired  the  office  of  an  adverb, 
and  at  last  of  a  preposition.  Though  seemingly  in  the  positive  degree,  it  is 
really  a  comparative  form  from  neah—nigh:  thus,  "the  near  (=the  nearer}  in 
blood,  the  nearer  bloody." — Shakspeare. 

needs NOUN:  "My  needs  are  small." 

ADVERB  :  "  He  needs  must  go."* 
VERB  :  "  He  needs  to  go." 

now ADVERB  :  "  Go  to  bed  now" 

CONJUNCTION:   "Not  this  man,  but  Barrabas;   now  Bar- 
rabas  was  a  robber." 

so ADVERB  :  "  So  frowned  the  combatants ;"  "  Richard  is  not 

so  tall  as  Henry." 

CONJUNCTION  :  "  There  was  nothing  to  be  seen,  so  we  went 
our  way." 

"So"  has  sometimes  a  pronominal  use:  as,  "Whether  he  is  a  genius  or 
not,  he  is  considered  so"  (=a  genius).  It  has,  indeed,  a  general  representative 
power:  as,  "David  was  wise;  Solomon  was  more  so"  (=wise).  "If  you  are 
busy,  say  so"  (=that  you  are  busy). 

*  "  Needs,"  as  an  adverb,  is  an  old  genitive  (possessive)  case  singular :  "  He 
needs  must  go"=He  must  of  need  [of  necessity]  go. 


NOTES  ON  VARIABLE  PARTS   OF  SPEECH. 

since PREPOSITION  :  "  since  the  Flood ;"  "  since  yesterday." 

CONJUNCTION  :  "  Since  you  command,  I  must  obey." 
ADVERB  :  "  Two  years  have  passed  since  last  we  met." 

that ADJECTIVE:  "that  house;"  "  that  pleasure." 

PRONOMINAL  :  "  We  heard  the  minister's  speech,  but  not 

that  of  the  doctor." 

REL.  PRONOUN  :  "  the  man  that  hath  no  music  in  himself." 
CONJUNCTION  :  "  We  know  that  Mars  has  satelites. 

what REL.  PRONOUN:  "  He  obtained  what  he  sought." 

INTER.  PRONOUN  :  "  What  is  the  news  ?" 
ADJECTIVE  :  "  What  sufferings  we  have  endured." 
*  ADVERB  :  "  What  with  generosity  and  what  with  extrava- 

gance, the  man  was  ruined." 
INTERJECTION  :  "  What !    Did  Caesar  swoon  ?" 

while VERB:  "Thus  we  while  away  our  time." 

NOUN  :  "  I  love  to  steal  a  while  away." 
ADVERB  :  "  I  will  watch  while  you  sleep." 

worth NOUN:  "  Worth  makes  the  man." 

ADJECTIVE  :  "  A  ring  he  hath  of  mine  worth  forty  ducats ;" 
"  To  reign  is  worth  ambition." 

Many  grammarians  class  "worth"  among  the  prepositions;*  but  it  is  an 
adjective,  and  the  noun  following  it  is  in  the  objective  adverbial.  Thus, 
"  worth  forty  ducats  "  = valuable  by  forty  ducats  (measure  of  value,  see  p.  105). 

*  u  Worth  has  the  construction  of  a  preposition,  as  it  admits  of  the  objective 
case  after  it,  without  an  intervening  preposition."  —  Worcester's  Dictionary. 


GENERAL  REVIEW. 


135 


GENEEAL  EEVIEW  OP  ETYMOLOGY, 


1.  What  is  etymology? 

2.  Name  the  parts  of  speech.  . 

3.  Define  "  grammatical  form." 

4.  Name  the  grammatical  forms. 

5.  What  are  the  four  modes  of  de- 

noting a  grammatical  form  ? 

6.  Which  parts  of  speech  have, 

and  which  have  not,  gram- 
matical forms  ? 

7.  Define  noun. 

8.  What  are  the  tests  of  the  noun  ? 

9.  What  are  the  classes  of  nouns  ? 

10.  Define  common  noun;  proper; 

abstract. 

11.  Enumerate  the  grammatical 

forms  of  the  noun. 

12.  Define     number  :     singular  ; 

plural. 

13.  Give  the  general  rule  for  the 

plural  of  nouns. 

14.  Give  an  example  of  plural  by 

radical  change ;  of  an  inde- 
terminate form. 

15.  How  is  the  plural  of  compounds 

formed  ? 

16.  Define     gender  :     masculine  ; 

feminine  ;  common  ;  neuter. 

17.  How  is  the  feminine  gender  of 

nouns  denoted  ? 

18.  Define  case. 

19.  How  many  cases  of  nouns? 

20.  Define  nominative  case  ;   pos- 

sessive case;  objective  case. 

21.  Give  the  rule  for  forming  the 

possessive. 

22.  What  is  the  origin  of 's  f 


23.  Define  person  in  nouns. 

24.  How  is  it  known  ? 

25.  Define  pronoun. 

26.  What  are  the  three  classes  of 

pronouns  ? 

27.  Define  personal  pronoun. 

28.  How  many  grammatical  forms 

has  a  personal  pronoun  ? 

29.  Define  relative  pronoun. 

30.  Define  antecedent. 

31.  What  are  the  interrogative  pro- 

nouns ? 

32.  Decline  who;  which. 

33.  Give  an  example  of  a  possessive 

adjective  (or  pronoun) ;  of  a 
demonstrative;  of  an  indefi- 
nite; of  ^  distributive. 

34.  What  peculiar  office  have  rela- 

tive pronouns  ? 

35.  Define  verb. 

36.  What    are    its    distinguishing 

marks  ? 

37.  Into  what  two  classes  are  verbs 

divided  ? 

38.  Define  transitive  verb — intran- 

sitive. 

39.  What  is  a  complement? 

40.  Define  auxiliary. 

41.  What  are  the  two  verbals  ? 

42.  Define  infinitive  ;  participle. 

43.  Enumerate  the  grammatical 

forms  of  the  verb. 

44.  Define  voice. 

45.  What  is  meant  by  the  active 

voice  ?  the  passive  voice  ? 

46.  How  is  the  passive  voice  formed? 


136 


ETYMOLOGY. 


47.  Define  mood. 

48.  How  many  moods  are  there  ? 

49.  How  is  the  indicative  mood 

used  ?  the  potential  ?  the  sub- 
junctive ?  the  imperative  ? 

50.  What  is  tense  ? 

51.  Enumerate  the  six  tenses. 

52.  Name  the  tenses  of  the  indica- 

tive mood. 

53.  Name  the  tenses  of  the  poten- 

tial mood. 

54.  Name  the  tenses  of  the  subjunc- 

tive mood. 

55.  How  many  tenses  has  the  im- 

perative mood  ? 

56.  What  are  the  two  infinitives  ? 

57.  What  are  the  two  gerunds  ? 

58.  How  many   participles  are 

there? 

59.  Define  number  and  person  in 

verbs. 

60.  What  is  the  origin  of  ed  in  the 

past  tense  ? 

61.  What  is  conjugation  ? 

62.  How   many    conjugations    are 

there  ? 

63.  Define  a  regular  verb ;  an  ir- 

regular verb. 

64.  What  are  the  principal  parts 

of  a  verb  ?     Of  walk  ? 

65.  Give  a  synopsis  of  walk  in  2d 

pers.  sing. ;  in  3d  pers.  pi. 

66.  Define  defective  verb;   uniper- 

sonal;  redundant. 

67.  What  are  the  chief  auxiliaries  ? 

68.  Define  progressive  form ;    em- 

phatic, interrogative. 

69.  What  is  the  origin  of  shall? 

70.  Define  adjective. 

71.  How  are  adjectives  classified  ? 

72.  What  is  a  limiting  adjective  ? 


Into  what  three  classes  are  lim- 
iting adjectives  subdivided  ? 

Name  the  articles. 

Define  pronominal  adjective. 

What  subdivisions  of  pronom- 
inal adjectives  are  made  ? 

What  is  a  cardinal  numeral  ? 

Define  qualifying  adjective. 

What  is  comparison  ? 

How  are  the  comparative  and 
superlative  degrees  formed? 

Explain  better;  worse. 

Define  adverb. 

Give  the  origin  of  when;  where; 
why. 

How  are  adverbs  compared  ? 

Define  preposition. 

Name  the  simple  prepositions. 

What  does  a  preposition  govern  ? 

Define  conjunction. 

How  are  conjunctions  classified? 

Define  co-ordinate  conjunction ; 
subordinate  conjunction. 

Give  three  co-ordinate  and  two 
subordinate  conjunctions. 

Define  interjection. 

Enumerate  the  nine  uses  of  the 


74, 
75, 

76, 

77, 
78. 
79, 
80, 

81, 
82, 
83, 

84, 

85, 
86 
87 
88 
89 
90 

91 

92 
93, 

noun. 

94.  Which  eight  uses  of  the  pro- 

noun are  the  same  as  those 
of  the  noun  ? 

95.  State  the  two  uses  of  the  ad- 

jective. 

96.  State   the   difference   of  office 

between  a  finite  verb  and  a 
verbal. 

97.  What  are  the  three  uses  of  the 

infinitive  ? 

98.  What  use  has  the  adverb  ? 

99.  What  uses  has  the  preposition  ? 

100.  What  uses  has  the  conjunction? 


SECTION  II. 

SYNTAX. 


DEFINITIONS. 

195,  Syntax*  is  that  division  of  grammar  which  treats  of 
the  relations  of  words  in  sentences. 

196.  Grammatical  Belations. — There  are  seven  principal 
relations  in  which  words  may  stand  in  a  sentence : — 

I.  The  subjective  relation, — of  subject  to  predicate. 
For  the  definition  of  subject,  see  §  209;  of  predicate,  see  §  210. 

II.  The  predicative  relation, — of  predicate  to  subject. 

III.  The   attributive  relation, — of  adjunct  to  the  word 
modified. 

An  attributive  word,  or  adjunct  (see  §  211),  is  a  word  used  with  a 
noun  or  pronoun  to  modify  its  meaning.  It  may  be  (1)  an  adjec- 
tive or  a  participle ;  (2)  a  noun  possessive ;  (3)  a  noun  appositive. 

IY.  The  complementary  relation, — of  complement  to  in- 
complete verb. 

Y.  The  adverbial  relation, — of  adverb  to  verb,  etc. 

YI.  The  representative  relation, — of  pronoun  to  the  noun 
or  pronoun  represented. 

YII.  The  connective  relation, — of  preposition  or  conjunc- 
tion to  the  words  connected. 

*  From  Greek  syn,  together,  and  taxis,  arrangement. 


138  SYNTAX. 

To  these  may  be  added — 

VIII.  The  absolute  and  independent  constructions,  in 
which  words  have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  other 
parts  of  the  sentence. 

197,  Constructions, — In  the  syntax  of  words  two  forms 
of  construction  are  found  —  regular  constructions  and  ir- 
regular constructions. 

198,  Eegular  constructions  are  those  that  follow  the  gen- 
eral rules  for  the  combination  of  words  in  sentences.     They 
are  expressed  in  the  Rules  of  Syntax  (see  page  140). 

199,  An  irregular  or  peculiar  construction,  sometimes 
called  an  idiom,  is  one  that  departs  from  the  ordinary  form 
or  meaning  of  words,  or  from  the  usual  manner  of  combin- 
ing words :  as,  "  How  do  you  do  ?"     "  This  heart  of  mine" 

The  irregularity  that  constitutes  a  particular  turn  of  expression 
an  idiom  is  due  to  the  operation  of  several  laws  of  language, 
among  which  the  most  important  are : 

Law  I.  Desire  of  brevity. 

Law  II.  Extension  of  a  construction  beyond  its  original  scope. 

Law  III.  Desire  of  euphony. 

NOTE. — The  operation  of  these  important  principles  will  best  be  shown  in 
connection  with  the  idiomatic  forms  under  the  several  rules  of  syntax. 

200,  Ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word  or  of  words  neces- 
sary to  complete  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  sentence : 
thus — 

1.  Whose  is  this  image  and  superscription  ?     They  say  unto  Him, 

Ccesar's  [image  and  superscription]. — English  Bible. 

2.  Hadst  thou  the  same  free  will  and  power  to  stand  ? 

Thou  hadst  [the  same  free  will  and  power  to  stand]. — Milton. 


NOTE  ON  SYNTAX  AND  ANALYSIS. 


13*9 


201,  Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  superfluous  words :  thus — 

1.  The  world  it  is  empty,  the  heart  will  die. — Coleridge. 

2.  Yon  silver  beams, 
Sleep  they  less  sweetly  on  the  cottage-thatch 
Than  on  the  dome  of  kings  ? — Shelley. 


NOTE  ON  SYNTAX  AND  ANALYSIS. 

I.  What  is  called  analysis  (i.  e.,  sentential  analysis)  is  a  kind  of 
general  syntax,  being  equally  applicable  to  all  languages.  Syntax  treats 
of  the  grammatical  relations  of  the  parts  of  speech ;  analysis,  of  the  logi- 
cal relations  of  the  constituent  elements  of  a  sentence ;  that  is,  of  their 
relations  in  the  expression  of  thought.  Taken  together  they  constitute 
that  branch  of  language-study  which  may  be  termed  the  Doctrine  of 
the  Sentence.  The  difference  between  the  two,  in  the  manner  of  con- 
sidering a  sentence,  may  be  seen  from  the  following  example : 
"  Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight." 

ANALYSIS. 

""Now  fades  the  glimmering,"  etc., 
is  a  simple  sentence. 

The  grammatical  subject  is  "land- 
scape." 

The  grammatical  subject  is  modified 
by  the  adjective  elements  "  the " 


SYNTAX. 

"Now"  is  an  adverb,  and  modifies 
the  verb  "fades." 

"Fades"  is  a  regular  intransitive 
verb,  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
third  person,  singular,  to  agree  with 
the  noun  "  landscape." 

"The"  is  the  definite  article,  and 
limits  "landscape." 

"Glimmering"  is  a  qualifying  ad- 
jective, and  modifies  "landscape." 

"Landscape"  is  a  common  noun, 
of  the  singular  number,  neuter  gender, 
and  n ominati  ve  case,  subject  of '  fades. ' ' 

"  On  "  is  a  preposition,  and  connects 
"sight"  with  "fades." 

"The"  (as  before). 

"Sight"  is  a  common  noun,  of  the 
singular  number,  neuter  gender,  and 
objective  case,  depending  on  the  prep- 
osition "on." 

II.  Syntax  treats  only  of  the  grammatical  construction  of  sentences, 
and  is  limited  to  a  single  aim  —  namely,  to  secure  by  obedience  to 
the  rules  governing  the  grammatical  relations  of  words,  correctness  in 
the  formation  of  sentences.  All  else — as  beauty,  strength,  etc. — is  be- 
yond the  scope  of  grammar,  and  pertains  to  rhetoric. 


and  "glimmering,"  thus  forming  the 
logical  subject  "the  glimmering  land- 
scape." 

The  grammatical  predicate  is 
"fades." 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  modi- 
fied by  the  adverb  "now,"  and  by  the 
adverbial  phrase  "on  the  sight,"  thus 
forming  the  logical  predicate,  "now 
fades  on  the  sight." 


14:0  SYNTAX. 


RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

1,  Subjective  Eelation, 

Rule  I. — The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nomina- 
tive case. 

2,  Predicative  Eelation, 

Rule  II. — A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person 
and  number. 

3,  Attributive  Kelation, 

Eule  III.  —  Adjectives  and  participles  modify 
nouns  or  pronouns. 

Rule  IV. — A  noun  modifying  another  noun  sig- 
nifying a  different  thing  is  in  the  possessive  case. 

Rule  V.  —  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain 
another  noun  or  pronoun  is  put  by  apposition  in 
the  same  case. 

4,  Complementary  Eelation, 

Rule  VI. — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  in 
the  objective  case. 

Rule  VII. — A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  com- 
plement of  an  intransitive  or  a  passive  verb  is  in  the 
nominative  case. 


RULES  OF  SYNTAX. 


5,  Adverbial  Eelation, 

Rule  VIII.  —  An  adverb  modifies  a  verb,  an  ad- 
jective, or  another  adverb. 

6,  Eepresentative  Eelation, 

Rule  IX.  —  A  pronoun  agrees  in  person,  gender, 
and  number  with  its  antecedent  or  the  word  that  it 
represents. 

7,  Connective  Eelation, 

Rule  X.  —  1.  A  preposition  joins  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun to  some  other  word. 

2.  A  noun  or  pronoun  depending  on  a  preposition 
is  in  the  objective  case. 

Rule  XI.  —  Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases, 
or  propositions. 

8,  Absolute  and  Independent  Constructions, 

Rule  XII.  —  1.  A  noun  or  pronoun  whose  case 
depends  on  no  other  word  is  put  in  the  nominative 
absolute. 

2.  The  nominative  independent  and  the  interjec- 
tion have  no  grammatical  relation  to  the  other  parts 
of  the  sentence. 

NOTE.—  For  the  Syntax  of  Moods  and  Tenses,  and  of  the  Verbals,  see 
page  197. 


142  SYNTAX. 


I.  SUBJECTIVE    RELATION. 
THE  SUBJECT  NOMINATIVE, 

Rule  I, —The  subject  of  a  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case. 
The  subject  of  a  verb  may  be  either  a  noun  or  one  of  its  equiva- 
lents— namely,  a  pronoun,  an  infinitive,  a  phrase,  or  a  proposi- 
tion: thus — 

1.  God  is  our  fortress. 

2.  He  comes,  the  herald  of  a  rising  world. 

3.  To  be  contents  his  natural  desire. 

4.  To  see  the  sun  is  pleasant. 

5.  What  one  man  owns  cannot  belong  to  another. 


EXERCISE    26. 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Rule  I.* 

1.  Flashed  all  their  sabres  bare. — Tennyson. 

2.  When  that  the  poor  have  cried,  Caesar  hath  wept. — Shakspeare. 

3.  Beyond  that  I  seek  not  to  penetrate  the  veil.— Webster. 

4.  She  tore  the  azure  robe  of  night, 

And  set  the  stars  of  glory  there.— Drake. 

5.  To  do  aught  good  never  will  be  our  task.—  Milton. 

6.  Jerusalem  has  derived  some  reputation  from  the  number  and  importance 

of  her  memorable  sieges. — Gibbon. 

7.  The  service  past,  around  the  pious  man, 

With  ready  zeal,  each  honest  rustic  ran.— Goldsmith. 

8.  Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 

Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn.— Milton. 

9.  Whatever  is,  is  right.— Pope. 

10.  Dust  thou  art,  to  dust  returnest, 

Was  not  spoken  of  the  soul. — Longfellow. 


*  It  is  recommended  that  the  parsing  exercises  be  now  confined  to  syntactical 
parsing.  Model  (sentence  1):  "The  noun  sabres  is  the  subject  of  the  verb 
flashed,  and  hence  is  in  the  nominative  case  according  to  Rule  I." 


RULE  I.— APPLIED  SYNTAX.  143 

AJPIPILIED    SYNTAX    OIP    [RULE    I. 

I,  Violations  of  Rule  I. 

Case  1. — In  the  use  of  the  objective  instead  of  the  nominative  case 
of  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  :  thus — 

Whom  would  you  suppose  stands  first  in  our  class  ? 

Incorrect :  "  whom,"  in  the  objective  case  is  made  the  subject  of  the 
verb  "  stands ;"  but  it  should  be  in  the  nominative  case,  who,  accord- 
ing to  Kule  I.  Hence — 

Caution  1. —  When  a  relative  or  an  interrogative  pronoun  is  sepa- 
rated by  intervening  words  from  the  verb  of  which  it  is  the  subject, 
care  must  be  taken  that  the  pronoun  is  in  the  nominative  form. 

Case  2.  —  When  there  is  an  ellipsis  of  the  verb  :  thus — 

1.  Is  she  as  tall  as  me? — Shakspeare. 

2.  She  suffers  hourly  more  than  me. — Swift. 

3.  The  nations  not  so  blessed  as  thee. — Thomson. 

4.  It  is  not  for  such  as  us  to  sit  with  the  rulers  of  the  land. — 

Walter  Scott. 

5.  She  was  neither  better  nor  wiser  than  you  or  me. — Thackeray. 

The  above  sentences,  each  by  a  famous  author,  all  violate  the  rule. 
The  error  becomes  evident  when  the  ellipsis  is  supplied :  thus,  (1)  uas 
tall  as  me  am;"  (2)  "  more  than  me  do;"  (3)  "  not  so  blessed  as  thee 
art;"  (4)  "  such  as  us  are;"  (5)  "  than  you  or  rne  are."  Hence — 

Caution  2. —  In  elliptical  sentences — especially  when  the  verb  is 
omitted  after  a  pronoun  subject  following  than  or  as — care  must  be 
taken  that  the  pronoun  designed  as  the  subject  of  the  verb  understood 
is  in  the  nominative  form. 


II.  Special  Rules. 

SPECIAL  KULE  I.— A  noun  or  pronoun  designed  by  construction  to  be 
the  subject  of  a  verb  must  have,  expressed  or  understood,  a  verb  of  which 
it  is  the  subject, 

Ex. — Two  substantives,  when  they  come  together,  and  do  not 
signify  the  same  thing,  the  former  must  be  in  the  genitive  case. 


144  SYNTAX. 

The  noun  "substantives"  is  evidently  designed  to  be  the  subject 
of  some  verb,  but  there  is  no  verb  of  which  it  is  the  subject.  To  cor- 
rect the  sentence  it  must  be  reconstructed.  Thus,  "  When  two  sub- 
stantives not  signifying  the  same  thing  come  together,  the  former  must 
be  in  the  genitive  case." 

SPECIAL  RULE  II.— The  verb  of  which  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  the  subject 
may  be  omitted  when  from  the  construction  it  is  readily  supplied,    Thus—  - 
She  will  relent  some  time ;  he,  never. 


NOTES   ON  PECULIAR  AND   IDIOMATIC  FORMS. 

I.  It. — By  an  idiom  of  our  language  the  pronoun  it,  in  such  con- 
structions as  "  It  was  impossible  to  recognize  him,"  serves  to  introduce 
a  verb,  the  real  (or  logical)  subject  of  which  is  placed  after  the  verb. 
"It  was  impossible,"  etc.=  To  recognize  1dm  was  impossible.     In  this 
construction  "  it "  may  be  parsed  as  the  anticipative  subject,  and  the 
real  subject  as  the  logical  subject. 

II.  There. — The  word  there  has  a  similar  office  in  such  sentences  as 
"  There  came  to  the  beach  a  poor  exile  of  Erin"  =.  A  poor  exile  of  Erin 
came  to  the  beach.     "  There  "  may  be  parsed  as  a  pronominal  (or  ex 
pletive),  used  as  the  anticipative  subject. 


EXERCISE    27. 

In  the  following,  correct  the  violations  of  Eule  I. 

1.  You  and  me  will  go  together. 

2.  Them  that  seek  Wisdom  will  be  wise. 

3.  He  feared  the  enemy  might  fall  upon  his  men,  whom  he  saw  were  off 

their  guard. 

4.  Whom  do  you  think  called  on  me  this  morning  ? 

5.  This  is  a  man  whom  I  think  deserves  encouragement. 

6.  My  brother  is  a  better  swimmer  than  him. 

7.  Is  James  as  old  as  me  ? 

8.  Such  a  man  as  him  could  never  be  President. 

9.  Are  you  taller  than  her  ? 

10.  Two  nations,  when  one  makes  war  on  the  other,  it  is  sometimes  difficult 
to  tell  where  the  blame  lies. 


RULE  IL— AGREEMENT  OF  VERB.  14-5 


II.  PREDICATIVE    RELATION. 
AGEEEMENT  OF  VEEB, 

Rule  II. —  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and 
number. 

NOTE.— The  logical  necessity  of  this  rule  may  be  thus  stated:  In  any 
sentence  the  verb  and  the  subject  are  spoken  of  the  same  thing.  They 
must,  therefore,  agree  with  each  other  in  those  grammatical  forms 
which  they  have  in  common,  otherwise  there  would  be  a  contradiction 
in  terms.  Now  the  grammatical  forms  common  to  the  verb  and  the 
noun  or  pronoun  are  person  and  number.  It  is  true  that,  owing  to  the 
paucity  of  inflections  in  the  English  verb,  conformity  of  person  and 
number  appears  only  to  a  limited  extent  in  visible  signs ;  neverthe- 
less, there  is  and  there  must  be  logical  concord  as  respects  the  common 
relations  of  verb  and  subject. 


EXERCISE    28. 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Rule  II.* 

1.  Father,  thy  hand 

Hath  reared  these  venerable  columns ;  thou 
Didst  weave  this  verdant  roof. — Bryant. 

2.  You  say  you  are  a  better  soldier. — Shakspeare. 

3.  Then  ye  are  only  five.— Wordsworth. 

4.  Pleasantly  rose  next  morning  the  sun  on  the  village  of  Grand-Pre. 

— Longfellow. 

5.  One  morn  a  Peri  at  the  gate  of  heaven  stood  disconsolate. — Moore. 

6.  Where  De  Soto  was  buried  cannot  be  determined. — Bancroft. 

7.  A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing ; 

Drink  deep,  or  taste  not  the  Pierian  spring.—  Pope. 

8.  He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best 

All  things  both  great  and  small; 
For  the  dear  God  who  loveth  us, 
He  made  and  loveth  all. — Coleridge. 

*  Model :  "Hath  reared,  a  verb  in  the  third  person  singular,  agrees  with  its 
subject  hand,  according  to  Rule  II. ;  didst  weave,  a  verb  in  the  second  person 
singular,  agrees  with  its -subject  thou,  according  to  Rule  II." 

G 


146  SYNTAX. 

9.  The  Accusing  Spirit,  which  flew  up  to  heaven's  chancery  with  the  oath, 
blushed  as  he  gave  it  in ;  and  the  Recording  Angel,  as  he  wrote  it  down, 
dropped  a  tear  upon  the  word,  and  blotted  it  out  forever. — Sterne. 

10.  We  know  that  if  we  could  cause  this  structure  to  ascend,  not  only  till  it 

reached  the  skies,  but  till  it  pierced  them,  its  broad  surfaces  could 
still  contain  but  part  of  that  which,  in  an  age  of  knowledge,  hath  al- 
ready been  spread  over  the  earth,  and  which  history  charges  itself 
with  making  known  to  all  future  times. — Daniel  Webster. 

11.  Then  methought  the  air  grew  denser,  perfumed  from  an  unseen  censer 
Swung  by  Seraphim  whose  footfalls  tinkled  on  the  tufted  floor. 
"Wretch,"  I  cried,  "  thy  God  hath  lent  thee— by  these  angels  he  hath 

sent  thee 

Respite — respite  and  nepenthe  from  thy  memories  of  Lenore ! 
Quaff,  oh  quaff  this  kind  nepenthe  and  forget  this  lost  Lenore !" 
Quoth  the  raven— Nevermore  l^—Poe. 


SYNTAX    OF    RULE    II. 

I.  Violations  of  Rule  II. 

Case  1.  —  When  the  verb  is  made  to  agree,  not  with  its  real  sub- 
ject, but  with  some  modifying  word  or  phrase:  thus — 

His  reputation  was  great,  and  somewhat  more  durable  than  that 
of  similar  poets  have  generally  been. 

Incorrect :  the  plural  form  of  the  verb  "  have  "  is  used  with  a  subject 
in  the  singular  number,  "  that."  It  should  be  "  has  generally  been." 
The  cause  of  the  mistake  is  that  the  verb  "  have  "  is  attracted  into  the 
same  number  as  "  poets ;"  but  as  the  phrase  "  of  similar  poets "  is  a 
mere  adjunct  of  "  that,"  it  can  have  no  influence  on  the  number  of 
the  verb.  Hence — 

Caution  1. — The  adjuncts  of  a  subject  do  not  control  the  number 
of  the  verb. 

Case  2.  —  When  there  is  misapprehension  as  to  the  number  of  a 
relative  pronoun  used  as  subject :  thus — 

This  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  books  that  has  appeared  in  any 

language. 

Incorrect :  the  verb  "  has  "  should  agree  with  its  subject,  the  rela- 
tive "  that ;"  now,  "  that "  is  in  the  plural  (see  Rule  IX.),  because 
"books,"  its  antecedent,  is  in  the  plural;  it  should,  therefore,  be 
"  that  have  appeared."  Hence — 


RULE  II.— AGREEMENT  OF   VERB.  14-7 

Caution  2. —  When  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  a  relative  pronoun, 
the  antecedent  determines  the  number  of  the  verb. 

Case  3.  —  When  an  improper  ellipsis  of  the  verb  occurs :  thus — 
A  bundle  of  papers  was  produced,  and  such  particulars  as  the 

following  detailed. 

There  is  an  ellipsis  of  the  auxiliary  before  the  participle  "  detailed." 
But  this  ellipsis  is  improper,  because  on  supplying  was  (expressed  be- 
fore "produced")  we  have,  "such  particulars  was  detailed."  The 
auxiliary  were  should  be  supplied.  Hence — 

Caution  3, — Generally  no  ellipsis  of  the  verb  is  allowable  when 
the  verb,  if  supplied,  would  not  agree  with  its  subject. 


II.  Special  Rules  under  Rule  II. 

SPECIAL  KULE  I.— Two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular  connected  by 
AND,  and  conveying  plurality  of  idea,  require  a  verb  in  the  plural :  as, 
"Mars  and  Jupiter  have  been  visible  this  week." 

I.  Person.— A  verb  having  two  or  more  subjects  of  different  per- 
sons connected  by  and  is  in  the  plural  number,  by  Special  Rule  I. 
As  to  the  person  to  be  attributed  to  the  verb,  that  is  determined 
by  the  following  tests : 

If  one  of  the  subjects  is  in  the  first  person,  the  verb  is  parsed  as  in 
the  first  person  plural :  "He  and  /  (=we)  are  to  go." 

If  one  of  the  subjects  is  in  the  second  person  (there  being  no  sub- 
ject in  the  first  person),  the  verb  is  parsed  as  in  the  second 
person  plural:  "You  and  James  are  [second  person  plural]  to 
go." 

II.  Coupled  Subjects  Singular.— The  following  are  instances  of 
coupled  subjects  which  convey,  not  plurality,  but  unity  of  idea. 
In  such  cases  the  verb  is  in  the  singular. 

1.  Two  or  more  nouns  designating  one  individual :  as — 

An  eminent  scholar  and  judicious  critic  has  said. 
That  is,  one  individual  who  was  both  a  "  scholar"  and  a  "  critic." 

2.  Two  or  more  nouns  synonymous,  or  nearly  so  :  thus — 

Wherein  doth  sit  the  dread  and  fear  of  kings. 


148  SYNTAX. 

8.  Two  or  more  nouns  considered  separately,  by  means  of  the 
limiting  words  each,  every,  or  no :  thus — 

1.  Each  day  and  each  hour  brings  its  own  duties. 

2.  .fen/  limb  and  every  feature  appears  with  its  appropriate  grace. 

3.  No  book  and  no  paper  was  arranged. 

4.  Two  nouns  representing  a  single  compound  object :  as — 

The  wheel  and  axle  ivas  out  of  repair=the  wheel  together  with  the 
axle. 

5.  Two  nouns,  of  which  one  is  excluded  from  the  affirmation  by 
the  adverb  not :  thus — 

Our  own  heart,  and  not  other  men's  opinions,  forms  our  true  honor. 

In  this  construction  two  propositions  are  implied,  viz. :  "  Our 
heart  forms  our  true  honor,"  and  "  Other  men's  opinions  do  not  form 
our  true  honor."  The  verb  agrees  with  the  subject  of  the  affirmative 
proposition,  and  is  understood  with  the  other. 

SPECIAL  KULE  II.— Two  or  more  subjects  in  the  singular  separated  by 
OR  or  NOR  require  a  verb  in  the  singular:  as,  "He  or  his  brother  has  the 
book."  "Neither  this  nor  that  is  the  thing  wanted." 

If  one  of  the  subjects  be  in  the  plural,  it  must  be  placed  next  the 
verb,  which  must  also  be  in  the  plural;  as,  "Neither  the  em- 
peror nor  his  generals  were  convinced." 

SPECIAL  RULE  III.— A  verb  liaving  two  or  more  subjects  of  different 
persons  connected  by  OR  or  NOR,  agrees  with  the  subject  nearest  to  it, 
and  must  be  understood  with  the  rest  in  the  required  person  and  number, 
Thus— 

1.  Either  Tie  or  I  am  to  blame. 

2.  You  or  Thomas  is  mistaken. 

3.  Neither  Jane  nor  you  study. 

NOTE.— The  construction  exemplified  in  the  preceding  sentences  is  not  to 
be  commended  as  illustrating  the  best  usage.  It  is  generally  preferable  either 
to  put  the  verb  with  the  first  subject,  repeating  it  in  its  proper  form  with  the 
second,  or  to  change  the  construction.  Thus : 

1.  Either  he  is  to  blame  or  I  am. 

2.  You  are  mistaken  or  Thomas  is. 

3.  Jane  does  not  study,  nor  do  you. 


RULE  IL— AGREEMENT  OF   VERB.  149 

SPECIAL  ROLE  IV.— A  verb  having  two  subjects  of  different  persons, 
one  affirmative  and  the  other  negative,  agrees  in  person  and  in  number 
with  the  affirmative  subject,  Thus— 

1.  He,  and  not  I,  is  chosen. 

2.  I,  and  not  they,  am  to  go. 

SPECIAL  RULE  V.  —  A  collective  noun  (in  which  the  idea  of  UNITY  is 
prominent)  takes  a  verb  in  the  singular :  as,  "  The  army  was  victorious." 

A  noun  of  multitude  (in  which  the  idea  of  PLURALITY  is  prominent) 
takes  a  verb  in  the  plural:  as,  "The  public  are  often  deceived  by  false 
appearances. " 

For  the  definition  of  collective  noun  and  noun  of  multitude,  see 
page  9.* 

Ex. — The  fleet  are  under  orders  to  set  sail. 

Incorrect :  the  collective  noun  "  fleet "  requires  a  verb  in  the  singu- 
lar ;  but  "  are "  is  in  the  plural.  Hence  it  should  be,  "  The  fleet  is 
under  orders,"  etc. 

Ex. — The  peasantry  goes  barefoot. 

Incorrect :  "  peasantry,"  a  noun  of  multitude,  requires  a  verb  in  the 
plural;  but  "goes  "-is  in  the  singular.  Hence  it  should  be,  "  The 
peasantry  go"  etc, 

SPECIAL  RULE  VI.— A  plural  title  applied  to  a  single  object  takes  a 
verb  in  the  singular,  Thus— 

1.  Johnson's  "  Lives  of  the  Poets"  is  an  admirable  work. 

2.  The  United  States  occupies  the  largest  part  of  North  America.t 

SPECIAL  RULE  VII.— When  in  any  sentence  there  is  an  ellipsis  of  a 
noun,  and  more  than  one  is  implied,  the  verb  is  made  plural,  Thus— 

1.  The  Second  and  the  Third  Epistle  of  John  contain  each  a  single 
chapter. 


*  In  regard  to  collective  nouns  and  nouns  of  multitude,  usage,  which  gives 
law  to  language,  is  quite  at  fault,  the  best  writers  being  both  at  variance  with 
one  another  and  inconsistent  with  themselves. 

t  In  the  case  of  the  term  "  United  States,"  the  present  tendency  is  to  follow 
Special  Rule  VI. ,  though  it  may  be  observed  that  in  the  Constitution  the  name 
is  represented  by  a  plural  pronoun  them  (Art.  III.,  §  3);  their,  XIII.  Amend- 
ment, §  1. 


150  SYNTAX. 

2.  A  literary,  a  scientific,  a  wealthy,  and  a  poor  man  are  to  take 
part  in  the  meeting.  (That  is,  a  literary  man,  a  scientific  man. 
etc.) 

In  such  cases  the  implied  noun  is  to  be  supplied,  and  the  verb 
is  to  be  parsed  as  agreeing  in  the  plural  with  the  several  subjects  con- 
nected by  and. 

SPECIAL  RULE  VIII.— Every  finite  verb  must  have  a  subject  expressed 
or  understood. 

An  allowable  ellipsis  of  the  subject  occurs  when  two  or  more 
verbs  are  connected  in  the  same  construction,  the  subject  being 
expressed  with  the  first  and  understood  with  the  others:  as, 
"James  reads  and  [James]  writes."  But  when  the  subject  is 
not  implied,  or  when  the  verbs  are  not  connected  in  the  same 
construction,  each  verb  should  have  its  own  subject.  Thus — 

It  is  thinking  makes  what  we  read  ours. 

Incorrect:  the  finite  verb  " makes"  is  without  a  subject,  either  ex- 
pressed or  readily  understood.  The  relative  that  should  be  supplied. 


NOTES  ON  PECULIAR  AND  IDIOMATIC  FORMS. 

I.  None — any — all>  etc. — The  indefinite  pronouns  none,  any,  all,  such, 
etc.,  take  verbs  in  the  singular  or  plural,  according  as  unity  or  plurality 
of  idea  is  intended.     Thus — 

None  [=no  one]  but  the  brave  deserves  the  fair. 
None  of  my  friends  were  at  laome=all  were  not-at-home. 
All  [= every  thing]  is  peaceful  and  still. 

All  [persons]  fear,  none  [=no  persons]  aid  you,  and  few  [persons]  under- 
stand. 

II.  Subject  +  verb  -f  predicate  nominative. — When  the  verb  to  le 
stands  between  a  subject  nominative  and  a  predicate  nominative,  as 
in  the  sentence,  "  The  wages  of  sin  is  death,"  doubt  may  arise  as  to 
which  determines  the  number  of  the  verb,  since  the  order  of  the  sen- 
tence is  sometimes  inverted.     The  principle  is,  to  decide  which  is  the 
real  subject,  and  make  the  verb  agree  with  that,  construing  the  other 
nominative  noun  as  the  predicate  nominative,  even  though  it  holds 


RULE  IT.— AGREEMENT  OF  VERB.  151 

the  place  in  the  order  of  words  usually  held  by  the  subject.  Thus  in 
the  sentence  cited  above  the  natural  subject  is  "  death,"  and  the  verb 
is  in  the  singular;  "wages1'  is  the  predicate  nominative. 

III.  Divided  Subjects. — When  a  verb  separates  its  subjects,  the  verb 
may  agree  in  number  with  the  first,  while  it  is  understood  with  the 
rest.    Thus — 

The  earth  is  the  Lord's,  and  the  fulness  thereof. 

This  is  in  seeming  violation  of  Special  Rule  I. ;  but  the  idiom  of  our 
language  allows  it.  In  parsing,  supply  the  verb  where  it  is  understood. 

IV.  Poetic  License. — In  poetry  there  are  frequent  departures  from 
the  principle  (see  Caution  3)  that  an  ellipsis  of  a  verb  must  not  occur 
where  the  verb,  if  supplied,  would  not  agree  with  its  subject.    Thus— 

Ah  !  then  and  there  was  hurrying  to  and  fro, 

And  [there  were]  gathering  tears  and  [there  were]  tremblings  of  distress, 

And  [there  were]  cheeks  all  pale,  which  but  an  hour  ago 

Blushed  at  the  praise  of  their  own  loveliness. — Byron. 

In  parsing  such  sentences  supply  in  its  correct  form  the  verb  un- 
derstood. Though  this  construction  is  permitted  by  poetic  license, 
it  is  not  allowable  in  ordinary  prose. 

V.  Double  Subject. — In  prose  it  is  improper  to  use  both  a  noun  and 
its  representative  personal  pronoun  as  subject  of  the  same  verb,  unless 
they  are  in  apposition.     But  in  poetry  this  irregularity  is  common. 

Thus— 

1.  The  Count,  he  was  left  to  the  vulture  and  hound. 

2.  For  the  deck,  it  was  their  field  of  fame. 


EXERCISE    29. 

In  the  following  sentences  correct  the  violations  of  Rule  II. 

General  Rule. 

1.  What  have  become  of  our  friends  ? 

2.  The  Normans,  under  which  general  term  is  comprehended  the  Danes, 

Norwegians,  and  Swedes,  were  accustomed  to  rapine  and  pillage. 

3.  I  came  to  see  you  because  I  knew  you  was  my  old  master. 

4.  Our  cousin's  kind  and  even  temper  endear  her  to  all. 

5.  What  signifies  fair  words  without  good  deeds  ? 

6.  Neither  of  the  parties  are  much  better. 

7.  There  was  no  data  given. 


152  SYNTAX. 

Cautions  1-3. 

1.  The  derivation  of  these  words  are  uncertain. 

2.  To  these  belong  the  power  of  licensing  places  for  the  sale  of  spirits. 

3.  Six  months'  interest  are  due. 

4.  The  condition  of  the  crops  show  that  the  country  has  suffered  much. 

5.  The  trend  of  the  Rocky  Mountains  are  toward  the  south. 

6.  Bless  them  that  curses  you. 

7  It  is  an  ill  wind  that  blow  nobody  good. 

8.  The  strata  that  contains  coal  belong  to  the  tertiary  era. 

9.  In  Alaska  the  winters  are  long  and  the  cold  intense. 

Special  Rules  T.-III. 

1.  The  f-agrant  woodbine  and  the  sweet-scented  myrtle  renders  the  air  in 

this  spot  truly  delicious. 

2.  My  trusty  counsellor  and  friend  have  warned  me  to  have  no  dealings 

with  such  men. 

3.  How  pale  each  worshipful  and  reverend  guest 
Rise  from  a  clergy  or  a  city  feast ! 

4.  Every  house-top  and  every  steeple  show  the  flag  of  the  republic. 

5.  To  read  and  write  were  once  an  honorary  distinction. 

6.  Our  will,  and  not  our  stars,  make  us  what  we  are. 

7.  Bread  and  milk  are  excellent  food  for  children. 

8.  A  word  or  an  epithet  paint  a  whole  scene. 

9.  Neither  the  captain  nor  the  sailors  was  saved. 

10.  One  or  both  of  the  boys  is  in  the  garden. 

11.  No  voice  nor  sound  but  their  own  echoes  were  heard  in  reply. 

12.  Nor  eye  nor  listening  ear  an  object  find. 

13.  I,  whom  nor  avarice  nor  pleasure  move. 

14.  He  or  I  is  to  go. 

15.  I,  or  thou,  or  he,  are  the  author  of  it. 

Special  Rules  IV.-VIII. 

1.  Not  you,  but  Mary,  are  the  best  scholar 

2.  The  club  meet  on  Tuesday. 

3.  Congress  have  adjourned. 

4.  A  herd  of  cattle  peacefully  grazing  afford  a  pleasing  sight. 

5.  The  assembly  thus  convened  were  numerous. 

6.  Mankind  was  not  united  by  the  bonds  of  civil  society. 

7.  Campbell's  Pleasures  of  Hope  were  sold  for  fifty  cents. 

8.  Silver  threads  among  the  Gold  are  a  hackneyed  song. 

9.  The  rising  and  the  falling  inflection  is  to  be  carefully  distinguished. 

10.  A  Webster's  and  a  Worcester's  dictionary  was  consulted. 

11.  It  is  a  long  road  has  no  turning. 

12.  Our  friend  brought  two  loads  to  market,  and  were  sold  at  good  price. 

13.  This  is  an  idiom  to  which  our  language  is  strongly  inclined,  and  was 

formerly  very  prevalent. 


RULE  III.— ADJECTIVE  AND  PARTICIPLE. 


III.  ATTRIBUTIVE   RELATION. 
I,  ADJECTIVE  AND  PAETIOIPLE, 

Eule  III— Adjectives  and  participles  modify  nouns  or  pro- 
nouns, 

I.  The  word  u  modifies  "  as  here  used  is  synonymous  with  relates, 
limits,  belongs  to — terms  employed  by  different  grammarians  to 
denote  that  the  adjective  and  the  participle  are  adjunct  words. 

II.  Adjectives  used  as  complements  of  incomplete  verbs  have  a 
double  office — that  of  complements  and  that  of  modifiers. 


EXERCISE    30. 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Eule  III.* 

1.  Outflow 
Millions  of  flaming  swords,  drawn  from  the  thighs 
Of  mighty  cherubim. — Milton. 

2.  With  a  slow  and  noiseless  footstep 
Comes  that  messenger  divine. — Longfellow. 

3.  The  hawthorn  bush,  with  seats  beneath  the  shade 

For  talking  age  and  whispering  lovers  made. — Goldsmith. 

4.  The  younger  guest  purloined  the  glittering  prize.—  Parnell. 

5.  The  service  past,  around  the  pious  man, 

With  steady  zeal,  each  honest  rustic  ran.—  Goldsmith. 

6.  The  wretch,  concentred  all  in  self, 
Living,  shall  forfeit  fair  renown, 
And,  doubly  dying,  shall  go  down 

To  the  vile  dust,  from  whence  he  sprung, 
Unwept,  unhonored,  and  unsung. — Scott. 

7.  The  patient  face  that  once  had  lain  upon  the  bed  was  glorified  and  radi- 

ant; but  his  heart  found  out  his  sister  among  all  the  host. — Dickens. 
8  First  in  war,  first  in  peace,  and  first  in  the  hearts  of  his  countrymen, 
Washington  was  second  to  none  in  the  humble  and  endearing  scenes 
of  private  life. — Henry  Lee. 


*  Model :  "  The  adjective  flaming  modifies  the  noun  swords ;  the  participle 
drawn  modifies  the  noun  sivords  ;  the  adjective  the  limits  the  noun  thighs;  tlis 
adjective  mighty  modifies  the  noun  cherubim,  according  to  Rule  III." 

G2 


154:  SYNTAX. 

9  How  dear  to  this  heart  are  the  scenes  of  my  childhood, 

When  fond  recollection  presents  them  to  view  !—  Woodworth. 
10.  This  day  I  was  gratified  with  what  I  had  often  desired  to  witness— the 
condition  of  the  sea  in  a  tempest.  I  had  contemplated  the  ocean  in 
all  its  other  phases,  and  they  are  almost  innumerable.  At  one  time  it 
is  seen  reposing  in  perfect  stillness  under  the  blue  sky  and  bright  sun. 
At  another,  slightly  ruffled,  and  then  its  motion  causes  his  rays  to 
tremble  and  dance  in  broken  fragments  of  silvery  or  golden  light — 
and  the  sight  is  dazzled  by  following  the  track  from  whence  his  beams 
are  reflected — while  all  besides  seems  to  frown  in  the  darkness  of  its 
ripple.—  Archbishop  Hughes. 


SYNTAX    OF    RTJL.E    III. 

NOTE.  —  Adjectives  in  the  English  language,  being  destitute  of 
inflections  for  gender,  number,  and  case,  do  not  admit  of  those  formal 
concords  with  the  noun  which  Latin  and  Greek,  German  and  French 
adjectives  exhibit.  For  this  reason  a  violation  of  Rule  III.  is  scarcely 
possible.  Still  some  adjectives  imply  the  relation  of  number,  and 
others  present  peculiarities  of  construction ;  and  these  properly  form 
the  subject  of  several  special  rules. 


Special  Rules  under  Rule  III, 

1,  Pronominal  Adjectives, 

SPECIAL  RULE  I.— Adjectives  that  imply  unity  or  plurality  must  agree 
witli  their  nouns  in  number:  as,  "  That  sort,  those  sorts;"  "  This  hand, 
these  hands." 

I.  Indefinite  adjectives  denoting  quantity  are  used  before  nouns  in 
the  singular ;  those  of  number,  if  implying  more  than  one,  must 
be  used  before  plurals :  thus — 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

much  IT  any 

little  few 

less  fewer 

least  fewest 

II.  The  indefinite  adjectives  all,  some,  no,  any,  other  agree  with 
nouns  in  either  number. 


RULE  III.— ADJECTIVE  AND  PARTICIPLE.  155 

SPECIAL  RULE  II. —The  adjectives  EACH,  EVERY,  EITHER,  NEITHER 
are  used  with  nouns  in  the  singular  only:  as,  "each  man;"  "every  day;" 

" either  side;"  "neither  bank." 

Either  and  neither  denote  one  of  two  objects  only ;  when  more  are 
referred  to,  any  or  any  one  and  none  or  no  one  should  be  used. 
Thus,  "  any  [or  any  one]  of  the  three,"  not  "  either  of  the  three." 
"None  [or  no  one]  of  the  four,"  not  "neither  of  the  four." 

OBS. — Either  should  never  be  used  for  both  or  for  each.  Such  expressions 
as  "On  either  side  is  level  fen,"  when  the  writer  means  on  each  side  or  on 
both  sides,  have  no  justification  except  that  of  very  loose  usage. 

2,  The  Articles, 

SPECIAL  RULE  III. — When  two  or  more  adjectives  relate  to  a  noun  de- 
noting one  and  the  same  object,  the  article  is  used  before  the  first  only; 
but  if  two  or  more  objects  are  intended,  the  article  must  be  repeated. 

Thus,  in  the  expression,  "  a  tall,  old,  fat  man,"  reference  is  made 
to  only  one  man;  but  "a  tall,  an  old,  and  a  fat  man"  denotes 
three  men. 

Ex. — It  is  difficult  in  some  cases  to  distinguish  between  an  inter- 
rogative and  exclamatory  sentence. 

Incorrect :  two  kinds  of  "  sentence  "  are  intended ;  hence  the  article 
should  be  used  before  each  noun ;  that  is,  we  should  say,  "  between 
an  interrogative  and  an  exclamatory  sentence." 

OBS.  —  Sometimes,  however,  the  article  is  repeated  for  the  sake  of 
emphasis :  as,  u  He  returned  a  sadder  and  a  wiser  man."  In  such  ex- 
ceptional cases  the  context  will  prevent  ambiguity. 

Ex. — There  is  a  difference  between  a  liberal  and  a  prodigal  hand. 

This  is  an  example  which  may  be  brought  under  the  latter  part 
of  Special  Rule  III.  One  hand,  which  is  "  liberal,"  is  contrasted  with 
another,  which  is  "  prodigal ;"  hence  two  objects  are  thought  of,  and 
the  article  is  used  with  both  adjectives. 

Ex. — There  is  about  the  whole  book  a  vehement,  contentious,  re- 
plying manner. 

This  sentence  is  correct.     It  is  here  not  necessary  to  repeat  the  a, 
because  it  is  one  manner  that  is  spoken  of— a  manner  "  vehement," ' 
"  contentious,"  and  "  replying." 


156  SYNTAX. 

SPECIAL  EULE  IV.— When  two  or  more  nouns  describe  one  person,  the 
article  is  used  before  the  first  only, 

"A  priest  and  king"  implies  that  both  offices  are  vested  in  one 
individual;  "a  priest  and  a  king"  implies  that  each  office  is 
held  by  a  separate  person. 

So,  also,  when  two  or  more  appositives  are  joined  to  a  noun,  the 
article  precedes  the  first  only:  thus,  "Johnson,  the  bookseller 
and  stationer  "=zone  "  Johnson,"  who  was  both  "  bookseller  and 
stationer." 

SPECIAL  EULE  V.— When  two  nouns  used  as  terms  of  a  comparison 
refer  to  the  same  person  or  thing,  the  article  is  omitted  with  the  latter 
noun ;  but  when  they  refer  to  different  persons  or  things,  the  article  must 
be  used  with  each  noun, 

1.  He  would  make  a  better  statesman  than  lawyer. 

2.  He  would  make  a  better  statesman  than  a  lawyer. 

In  1,  "lawyer"  and  "statesman"  refer  to  the  same  persons" He 
would  make  a  better  statesman  than  [he  would  make  a]  law- 
yer." In  2,  "  lawyer  "  and  "  statesman  "  refer  to  different  per- 
sons—" He  would  make  a  better  statesman  than  a  lawyer  [would 
make]." 

SPECIAL  EULE  VI.— The  indefinite  article  should  be  repeated  before 
each  of  several  nouns  when  the  same  form  of  it  would  not  agree  with  all. 
Thus  we  can  say,  "  a  man,  woman,  and  child ;"  but  we  must  not 
say,  "  a  cow,  ox,  and  pig,"  because  on  supplying  the  expressed 
article  "  a,"  it  is  not  in  the  form  required  by  "  ox." 

3,  Construction  of  Comparatives  and  Superlatives, 

SPECIAL  EULE  VII.— The  comparative  degree  is  used  when  two  ob- 
jects or  classes  of  objects  are  compared;  the  superlative,  when  more 
than  two  are  compared:  as,  "Iron  is  harder  than  wood."  "Could  make 
the  worse  appear  the  better  reason."  "Oh!  bloodiest  picture  in  the  book 
of  time." 

SPECIAL  EULE  VIII.— When  the  comparative  degree  is  used,  the  latter 
term  of  comparison  should  always  exclude  the  former ;  but  when  the  su- 
perlative is  used,  the  latter  term  should  always  include  the  former :  as. 


RULE   III.— ADJECTIVE  AND   PARTICIPLE.  157 

"Russia  is  larger  than  any  other  country  in  Europe."  "Russia  is  the  largest 
country  [of  all  countries]  in  Europe." 

The  following  sentences  exemplify  violations  of  Special  Rule  VIII. 

1.  Bismarck  is  greater  than  any  German  statesman. 

As  Bismarck  is  a  German  statesman,  the  sentence  affirms  that  he  is 
greater  than  himself.  It  should  read:  "Bismarck  is  greater  than  any 
other  German  statesman"  or  "than  all  other  German  statesmen."  The 
phrase  than  any  other  satisfies  the  rule  by  excluding  Bismarck  from  the 
class  with  which  he  is  compared.  We  can  properly  say,  "  Bismarck  is 
greater  than  any  Chinese  statesman"  because  Bismarck  does  not  belong 
to  the  class  Chinese  statesmen. 

2.  Shakspeare  is  the  most  admired  of  all  the  other  English  poets. 
In  order  to  satisfy  the  rule  that,  when  the  superlative  is  used,  the 

latter  term  of  comparison  must  include  the  former,  the  word  "other" 
must  be  expunged.  Thus:  "the  most  admired  of  all  the  English 
poets." 

SPECIAL  RULE  IX.— Double  forms  of  the  same  word  in  the  comparative 
or  superlative  degree  must  not  be  used:  thus,  "the  strictest  sect" — not 

"  the  most  strictest  sect :"  "  the  worse  result " — not  "the  worser  result." 

4,  Adjectives  for  Adverbs. 

SPECIAL  RULE  X.  —An  adjective  must  not  be  used  where  the  con- 
struction requires  an  adverb, 

I.  The  construction  requires  an  adverb  when  manner  is  to  be  ex- 
pressed. 

1.  He  arose  slow  from  the  ground,  and  resumed  his  journey. 
Incorrect :  the  intent  is  to  denote  the  manner  of  rising ;  hence  the 

adverb  slowly  should  be  employed. 

2.  It  is  easier  said  than  done. 

This  should  be,  "  more  easily  said,"  etc. 

II.  The  caution  expressed  in  Special  Rule  X.  must  not  be  under- 
stood as  applying  to  an  adjective  used  as  the  complement  of  an  in- 
transitive or  a  passive  verb,  and  modifying  the  subject :  as,  "  Apples 
taste  sweet."     (See  Special  Rule  II.,  page  177.) 


158  SYNTAX. 

III.  An  error  analogous  to  that  censured  in  Special  Rule  X.  is  ex- 
emplified in  the  use  of  like  for  the  conjunction  as:  thus — 

Victory  must  end  in  possession,  like  toil  in  sleep.— Gladstone. 

This  should  be,  "  Victory  must  end  in  possession,  as  [does]  toil  in 
sleep." 

NOTES  ON  PECULIAR  AND  IDIOMATIC  FORMS. 

I.  Not  articles. — In  some  cases  what  appears  to  be  an  article  is  not 
really  such.     Thus  a  in  the  phrase  "  twice  a  week  "  was  originally  a 
weakened  form  of  the  preposition  on  (compare  aboard=:6w  board).     In 
this  construction,  the  proper  parsing  is  to  call  "  a  week  "  an  adverbial 
phrase. 

The  word  the  in  such  constructions  as  "  the  more  the  merrier "  is 
not,  strictly  speaking,  an  article.     (For  its  real  nature,  see  page  88.) 

II.  "Many  a,"  etc. — The  indefinite  article  usually  precedes  an 
adjective  relating  to  a  noun ;  but  the  idiom  of  our  language  permits  a 
departure  from  this  usage  with  the  adjectives  many,  what,  or  such :  as — 

Full  many  a  flower  is  born  to  blush  unseen. 
What  a  piece  of  work  is  man. 
Such  a  Roman. 

It  is  proper  to  parse  many  a  as  a  complex  adjective,  used  idio- 
matically. 

III.  "A  hundred,"  etc. — The  words  hundred,  thousand, pair,  dozen, 
etc.,  may  be  used  with  the  indefinite  article,  for  the  reason  that  these 
words  are  originally  nouns :  thus,  "  a  hundred  sheep."     This  construc- 
tion is  idiomatic :  in  Anglo-Saxon,  hundred,  thousand,  etc.,  were  followed 
by  a  noun  in  the  genitive  case,  as  though  we  said  "  a  hundred  of  sheep.1' 
(It  may  be  noted  that  we  still  say,  "  a  pair  of  stockings,"  "  a  score  of 
men,"  though,  also,  "  a  dozen  men.")     In  parsing,  it  is  proper  to  con- 
sider "  a  hundred  "  as  forming  a  complex  adjective. 

IV.  "  First  two,"  etc. — When  two  numerals  relate  to  one  noun, 
the  ordinal  generally  precedes  the  cardinal :  as,  "  the  first  two  chapters 
of  Matthew,"  "  the  last  three  stanzas  of  the  hymn."     (It  is  plain  that, 
strictly  speaking,  there  cannot  be  two  first  chapters,  or  three  last 


RULE  ///.— ADJECTIVE  AND  PARTICIPLE.  159 

stanzas.)  However,  the  terms  "  two  first,"  "  three  last,"  and  the  like, 
might  occur  in  another  construction,  and  with  a  different  meaning — 
namely,  as  the  first  of  each  of  two  series,  or  the  last  of  each  of  three  series, 

etc. 

For  instance,  if  there  were  two  classes  in  a  school,  the  boys  at  the  head 
of  each  might  be  styled  the  "two  first;"  or,  if  there  were  three 
classes,  the  boys  at  the  foot  of  each  might  be  termed  the  "three  last." 

V.  Double  Comparatives,  etc,  —  Some  of  our  older  writers,  when 
they  wished  to  be  emphatic,  employed  double  comparatives  or  super- 
latives: thus — 

The  unkindest  beast  more  kinder  than  mankind. — Shakspeare. 
This  was  the  most  unkindest  cut  of  all. — Ibid. 

Such  constructions  were  once  good  English,  but  are  contrary  to 
modern  usage.* 


EXERCISE    31. 

In  the  following  sentences  correct  the  violations  of  Rule 
III. 

Special  Rules  I.,  II. 

1.  These  kind  of  verbs  are  more  expressive  than  their  radicals. 

2.  These  sort  of  peaches  are  very  numerous. 

3.  They  could  not  speak ;  and  so  I  left  them  both, 
To  bear  this  tidings  to  the  bloody  king. 

4.  Besides,  he  had  not  much  provisions  left  for  his  army. 

5.  Not  less  than  twenty  dictionaries  of  the  English  language  have  been 

published. 

6.  Charles  formed  expensive  habits,  and  by  those  means  became  poor. 

7.  John,  James,  and  Henry  are  faithful  boys,  and  either  lad  will  carry  the 

message. 

Spedal  Rules  III.-TII. 

1.  The  governor  and  the  commander-in-chief  [one  person]  has  arrived. 

2.  The  governor  and  commander-in-chief  [two  persons]  have  arrived. 

3.  The  rich  and  poor  have  a  common  interest. 

4.  The  man  wore  a  large,  a  dark,  and  a  faded  cloak. 

*  "And  this  [i.  e.,  a  double  superlative]  is  a  certaine  kind  of  English  At- 
ticisjme,  or  eloquent  phrase  of  speech,  imitating  the  manner  of  the  most  an- 
cientest  and  finest  Grecians,  who  for  more  emphasis  and  vehemencies  sake  used 
to  speake  thus."— Ben  Jonson. 


160  SYNTAX. 

5.  A  red  and  a  white  flag  was  the  only  one  displayed  from  the  tower. 

6.  A  hot  and  cold  spring  were  found  in  the  same  neighborhood. 

7.  The  first  and  second  book  are  difficult. 

8.  A  man,  woman,  and  infant  were  riding  in  the  cars. 

Special  Rules  TIII.-X. 

1.  Both  of  these  opinions  have  the  sanction  of  the  highest  authority,  and 

it  may  be  well  to  examine  which  of  them  is  the  wisest. 

2.  Shakspeare  is  more  admired  than  any  English  poet. 

3.  When  reason  doubtful,  like  the  Samian  letter,  points  him  two  ways,  the 

narrowest  is  the  best. 

4.  Of  all  other  figures  of  speech,  irony  should  be  the  most  carefully  em- 

ployed. 

5.  This  kind  of  wit  is  that  which  abounds  in  Cowley,  more  than  in  any 

author  that  ever  wrote. 

6.  A  fondness  for  show  is,  of  all  other  follies,  the  most  vain. 

7.  A  more  worthier  man  you  cannot  find. 

8.  The  poor  girl  still  coughs  considerable. 

9.  Chattel-ton  died  miserable  poor. 

10.  The  French  did  not  feel  the  war  like  we  did. 


2,  NOUNS  IN  THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE, 

Rule  IV.— A  noun  modifying  another  noun  signifying  a  dif- 
ferent thing  is  in  the  pOSSeSSive  Case:  as,  "man's  life;"  "the  boy's 
books." 

The  noun  to  which  the  noun  in  the  possessive  case  stands  in  the 
attributive  relation  may  be  called  the  principal  term. 


EXERCISE    32, 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Rule  IV.* 

1.  Now  Jove  suspends  his  golden  scales  in  air, 
Weighs  the  men's  wit  against  the  lady's  hair. 

2.  Little-minded  people's  thoughts  move  in  such  small  circles  that  five 

minutes'  conversation  gives  you  an  arc  long  enough  to  determine  their 
whole  curve. — 0.  W.  Holmes. 

*  Mod  el:  "The  noun  men's  in  the  possessive  case  modifies  the  noun  jvit, 
according  to  Rule  IV. ;  the  noun  lady's  in  the  possessive  case  modifies  the 
noun  hair,  according  to  Rule  IV." 


RULE  IV.— NOUNS  IN  THE  POSSESSIVE  CASE. 

3.  I  inhaled  the  violet's  breath. — Emerson. 

4.  Tell  me  what  thy  lordly  name  is  on  the  Night's  Plutonian  shore.—  P)e. 

5.  The  spider's  thread  is  cable  to  man's  tie  on  earthly  bliss. —  Young. 

6.  Richer  by  far  is  the  heart's  adoration. — Heber. 

7.  'Twas  made  of  the  white  snail's  pearly  shell. — Drake. 

8.  Quench  the  timber's  falling  embers, 
Quench  the  red  leaves  in  December's 

Hoary  rime  and  chilling  spray. —  Whittier. 

9.  Let  all  the  ends  thou  aim'st  at  be  thy  country's  [ends],  thy  God's,  and 

truth' s.  — Shakxpeare. 
10.  O,  well  for  the  fisherman's  boy, 

That  he  shouts  with  his  sister  at  play.— Ten nyson. 


SYNTAX  OF  RULE  iv. 

Special  Rules  under  Rule  IV. 

SPECIAL  RULE  I.— The  principal  term,  when  sufficiently  obvious,  is 

often  omitted:  as,  "Ball  and  Black's  [store];"  "the  Court  of  St.  James's 
[palace];"  "from  Stiles's  pocket  into  Nokes's  [pocket]." 

SPECIAL  RULE  II.— When  joint  ownership  or  possession  is  attributed 
to  two  or  more  persons,  the  name  of  only  the  last  mentioned  takes  the  sign 
of  the  possessive:  as,  "Liddell  and  Scott's  Greek-English  Lexicon." 

In  such  cases  the  nouns  may  be  parsed  as  co-ordinate  terms  in 
the  possessive  case,  but  having  the  possessive  sign  affixed  to 
the  last  only. 

SPECIAL  ROLE  III.— When  separate  ownership  is  attributed  to  two  or 
more  persons,  the  name  of  each  should  be  in  the  possessive  case :  as, 4<  Web- 

ster\i  and  Worcester's  dictionaries." 

In  such  cases  the  principal  term  after  each  possessive  noun  may 
be  supplied  in  parsing. 

SPECIAL  RULE  IV.— When  ownership  is  attributed  to  a  single  person 
described  by  two  or  more  nouns  in  apposition,  the  noun  immediately  pre- 
ceding the  principal  term,  expressed  or  understood,  alone  takes  the  posses- 
sive sign:  as,  "At  Smith,  the  bookseller  s  [store]  ;"  "for  my  servant  David's 
sake." 

In  such  instances  the  two  or  more  nouns  are  each  to  be  parsed 
as  in  the  possessive  case  according  to  the  rule  of  apposition. 
(See  Rule  V.) 


1(32  SYNTAX. 

SPECIAL  RULE  V.— In  a  complex  term  the  last  word  takes  tlie  posses- 
sive sign:  as,  "My  father-in-law'*  house;"  "The  bard  of  Lomond's  lay;" 
i 'Henry  the  Eighth's  reign." 

In  parsing,  a  complex  noun  is  to  be  taken  as  a  whole. 

SPECIAL  RULE  VI.— A  noun  or  a  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case  may 
relate  to  a  gernnd:  as,  "This  will  be  the  effect  of  the  pupil's  composing 
frequently ;"  "  This  will  be  the  effect  of  his  composing  frequently." 

I.  While  the  gerund  in  its  noun-character  may  thus  take  a  pos- 
sessive noun  or  pronoun  as  an  attributive,  it  may  in  its  verb- 
character  receive  a  complement  or  an  adjunct.     Hence  result 
such  constructions  as — 

1.  Disease  and  death  were  consequences  of  the  marts  neglecting 

treatment. 

2.  This  is  the  result  of  his  being  diligent  in  his  youth. 

In  these  forms  of  expression  there  is  nothing  anomalous:  the 
peculiarities  of  construction  result  naturally  from  the  nature  of 
the  gerund. 

II.  It  follows  that  the  general  rule  is  violated  when  in  this  con- 
struction an  attributive  noun  or  pronoun  is  not  put  in  the  pos- 
sessive case :  thus,  "  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  Trill  passing  the 
House,"  should  be,  "  There  is  no  doubt  of  the  bill's  passing  the 
House." 


EXERCISE    33. 

In  the  following  sentences  correct  the  violations  of  Rule 
IV. 

Special  Rules  II.-VI. 

1.  The  bridge  is  opposite  Brown's  Brothers'. 

2.  Was  Cain's  and  Abel's  father  there? 

3.  We  have  men  and  boy's  clothing. 

4.  There  is  but  little  difference  between  the  Earth  and  Venus' s  diameter. 

5.  Nothing  shall  die  of  all  that  is  the  children's  of  Israel. 

6.  Call  at  Smith's,  the  bookseller  and  stationer's. 

7.  We  read  of  Jack's  the  Giant-killer  wonderful  exploits. 

8.  Thy  Maker's  will  has  placed  thee  here, 
A  Maker's  wise  and  good. 

9.  We  heard  of  your  honor  coming  to  town. 

10.  Day  and  night  are  a  consequence  of  the  earth  revolving  on  its  axis. 


RULE   V.—APPOSITIVES.  163 

3,  APPOSITIVES, 

Rule  V.  —  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  to  explain  another  noun 
or  pronoun  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  same  case :  as— 

1.  Thomson,  the  poet,  was  a  contemporary  of  Hume,  the  historian. 

2.  Tis  I,  Hamlet  the  Dane. 

I.  The  case  of  the  principal  term  depends  on  its  grammatical  re- 
lation in  the  sentence :  this  must  first  be  determined  by  the  ap- 
propriate rule  of  syntax,  before  the  case  of  the  appositive  can 
be  known. 

II.  A  phrase  or  a  proposition  may  be  in  apposition  with  a  noun : 
thus — 

1.  O  let  us  still  the  secret  JOY  partake 

To  follow  virtue  e'en  for  virtue"1  &  sake. — Pope. 

2.  In  the  serene  expression  of  her  face  he  read  the  divine  BEATITUDE, 

"Blessed  are  the  pure  in  heart."— Longfellow. 


EXERCISE    34. 

In  the  following  sentence  apply  Rule  V.* 

1.  'Tis  I,  Hamlet  the  Dane. — Shakspeare. 

2.  At  midnight,  in  the  forest  shades, 
Bozzaris  ranged  his  Suliote  band, 
True  as  the  steel  of  their  tried  blades, 
Heroes  in  heart  and  hand. — Halleck. 

3.  This  is  my  son,  mine  own  Telemachus.— Tennyson. 

4.  There,  swinging  wide  at  her  moorings,  lay 
The  Somerset,  British  man-of-war— 

A  phantom  ship. — Longfellow. 

5.  So  work  the  honey-bees, 

Creatures  that  by  a  rule  in  nature  teach 

The  art  of  order  to  a  peopled  kingdom.—  Shakspeare. 

6.  That  best  portion  of  a  good  man's  life — 
His  little,  nameless,  unremembered  acts 
Of  kindness  and  of  love. —  Wordsworth. 

7.  It  is  seldom  that  the  father  and  the  son,  he  who  has  borne  the  weight, 

and  he  who  has  been  brought  up  in  the  lustre  of  the  diadem,  exhibit 
equal  capacity  for  the  administration  of  affairs. — Gibbon. 

*  Model :  "The  noun  Hamlet,  explaining  the  pronoun  7,  is  in  the  nomina- 
tive case;  the  noun  Dane,  explaining  Hamlet,  is  in  the  nominative  case,  accord- 
ing to  Rale  V." 


IQ4:  SYNTAX. 

NOTES  ON  PECULIAR  AND  IDIOMATIC  FORMS. 

I.  Each   Other.  —  In   the    sentences,  "  They   loved   each    other," 
"They  hated   one  another,"  the   words   "each"   and  "other,"  and 
u  one  "  and  "  another,"  though  reciprocally  related,  are  not  in  the  same 
construction.      The  sentences  are  contracted  forms  of  "  They  loved, 
each  [loved]  other"  and  "  They  hated  one  [hated]  another"     "  Each  "  is 
in  the  nominative  case,  in  apposition  to  "  they,"  while  "other"  is  in 
the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  verb  "  loved."     "  One  "  is  in  appo- 
sition to  "  they,"  and  "  another  "  is  object  of  "  hated." 

This  construction  is  an  instance  of  the  action  of  the  law  of  brevity. 
On  the  same  principle  we  may  explain  "  They  heard  each  other's  voice" 
=They  heard,  each  (heard)  other's  voice.* 

II.  Appositiye  with  ((  as."  —  A  species  of  apposition  is  formed  by 
introducing  the  attributive  noun  by  as.     Thus  — 

Cicero  as  an  orator  was  bold  —  as  a  soldier,  he  was  timid. 
That  is,  Cicero,  considered  as  an  orator,  etc.     This  construction  is 
always  elliptical  ;  in  parsing,  either  the  ellipsis  may  be  supplied,  or  it 
may  be  stated  that  the  appositive  is  introduced  by  as,  and  that  the 
construction  is  idiomatic. 

III.  Appositire  to  a  Pronoun.  —  A  puzzling  instance  of  apposition 
is  exemplified  in  the  following  construction: 

Thus  shall  mankind  his  guardian  care  engage, 
The  promised  father  of  the  future  age.— 


It  is  customary  to  construe  the  noun  "father"  as  in  the  possessive 
case,  in  apposition  with  "  his."  But  it  is  better  to  treat  "  his  "  as 
equivalent  to  of  him.  "Father"  is,  then,  in  the  objective  case,  in 
apposition  with  Mm  (=the  guardian  care  of  him,  i\\Q  father,  etc). 

The  same  explanation,  taken  in  connection  with  what  is  said  in 
Note  II.  in  regard  to  the  appositive  introduced  by  as,  will  explain 


*  "Such  phrases  as  to  each  other,  from  one  another,  are  corruptions  made 
upon  a  false  analogy,  though  they  are  now  thoroughly  fixed  in  the  language." 
— Mason:  English  Grammar.  The  Old-English  constructions  were  each  to 
other,  one  from  another. 


RULE   V.—APPOSITIVES.  165 

constructions  like  the  following :  "  The  general '«  popularity  as  a  com- 
mander increases  daily  "=The  popularity  of  the  general  [objective]  as 
a  commander  [objective]  increases  daily. 

IV.  Pronouns  used  Adjectively. — The  use  of  a  pronoun  as  princi- 
pal term  to  a  noun  appositive  is  to  be  distinguished  from  a  pronoun 
used  in  the  manner  of  an  adjective.  The  former  is  illustrated  by  such 
constructions  as  the  following — 

But  he,  our  gracious  Master,  kind  as  just, 
Knowing  our  frame,  remembers  we  are  dust. 

This  comes  under  the  regular  rule  of  apposition,  and  differs  from  the 
following : 

1.  And  you,  ye  waters*  roll. 

2.  We  poets  in  our  youth  begin  in  gladness. 

Constructions  like  these  last  are  usually  treated  as  instances  of  apposi- 
tion; but  it  would  perhaps  be  more  logical  to  consider  a  pronoun 
thus  employed  as  used  adjectively,  just  as  a  noun  may  be  used  ad- 
jectively. 

Y.  Appositive  to  a  Statement. — Sometimes  the  idea  expressed  by 
an  entire  sentence  is  repeated  pleonastically  by  means  of  a  noun :  thus, 
"  He  rashly  ventured  to  ascend  the  mountain  without  a  guide,  an  act 
which  cost  him  his  life;"  that  is,  Ms  rashly  venturing,  etc.,  was  an  act, 
etc. 

EXERCISE    35. 

In  the  following  sentences  correct  the  violations  of 
Eule  V. 

1.  The  insult  was  offered  to  my  friend,  he  whom  I  loved  as  a  brother. 

2.  We  kept  silent,  her  and  me.        % 

3.  Do  you  speak  so  to  me,  I  who  have  so  often  befriended  you  ? 

4.  The  dress  was  made  by  Worth,  the  milliner,  ho  that  we  saw  in  Paris. 

5.  Resolve  me,  why  the  cottager  and  king, 
Him  whom  sea-severed  realms  obey,  and  him 
Who  steals  his  whole  dominion  from  the  waste, 
Repelling  winter  blasts  with  mud  and  straw, 
Disquieted  alike,  draw  sigh  for  sigh. 

*  Observe  that  while  uye"  is  used  adjectively,  there  is  a  real  instance  of 
apposition  between  "waters"  and  "you." 


166  SYNTAX. 


IV.  COMPLEMENTARY  RELATION. 
1,  COMPLEMENT  OF  TEANSITIYE  YEEBS, 

Rule  VI, — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  is  in  the  objective 
case. 

I.  The  object,  or  complement  (usually  called  the  direct  object),  of  a 
transitive  verb  may  be : 

1.  A  noun :  as,  "  Love  your  enemies." 

2.  A  pronoun  :  as,  "  Follow  me." 

3.  An  infinitive  or  a  phrase :  as — 

1.  Learn  to  labor  and  to  wait  (simple  infinitives  as  objects). 

2.  Now  leave  complaining,  and  begin  your  tea  (gerund  as  object). 

3.  Ladies,  you  deserve  to  have  a  temple  built  you  (infinitive  phrase  as 

object). 

4.  A  proposition :  as,  "  I  perceived  that  we  brought  good-humor  with 
us." 

NOTE.— A  phrase  or  a  clause  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb  is  parsed  as  in  the 
singular  number  and  objective  case.  It  should  be  understood  that,  with  a  few 
idiomatic  exceptions,  Rule  VI.  can  apply  only  to  transitive  verbs  in  the  active 
voice. 

II.  Verbals. — The  object  may  be  the  complement  not  only  of  a 
finite  verb,  but  of  its  verbals — namely,  the  infinitives  and  the  participles : 
thus — 

1.  To  PUT  [inf.]  on  your  harness  is  different  from  PUTTING  [ger- 
und] it  off. 

2.  The  thief,  SEEING  [participle]  the  officer,  ran  away.     HAVING 
EXPLORED  [part.]  the  islands,  Columbus  returned  to  Spain. 

III.  Arrangement.  —  In  the  regular  order  the  object  follows  the 
verb ;  thus — 

And  each  separate  dying  ember 
Wrought  its  ghost  upon  the  floor.— Poe. 


RULE   VI.— COMPLEMENT  OF  TRANSITIVE   VERBS.        167 

But  for  rhetorical  effect  the  object  may  precede  the  verb  :*  thus — 

Honey  from  out  the  gnarled  hive  I'll  bring, 

And  apples  wan  with  sweetness  gather  thee.— Keats. 


EXERCISE    36. 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Rule  Vl.f 

1.  The  Muses  haunt  clear  spring,  or  shady  grove,  or  sunny  hill. 

2.  Not  a  soldier  discharged  his  farewell  shot.—  Wolfe. 

3.  When  the  enamoured  sunny  light 
Brightens  her  that  was  so  bright. — Wordsworth. 

4.  Their  furrow  oft  the  stubborn  glebe  has  broke. — Gray. 

5.  Beaux  banish  beaux,  and  coaches  coaches  drive.— Pope. 

6.  The  gushing  flood  the  tartans  dyed.—  Scott. 

7.  Me  he  restored,  and  him  he  hanged.— Bible. 

8.  Knowledge  in  general  expands  the  mind,  exalts  the  faculties,  refines  the 

taste  of  pleasure,  and  opens  innumerable  sources  of  intellectual  en- 
joyment.— Robert  Hall. 

9.  For  my  own  part  I  have  ever  believed,  and  do  now  know,  that  there  are 

witches.— Sir  T.  Browne. 

10.  They  lost  no  more  time  in  asking  questions.— Dickens. 

11.  They  follow  an  adventurer  whom  they  fear,  and  obey  a  power  which 

they  hate ;  we  serve  a  monarch  whom  we  love — a  God  whom  we  adore. 
— Sheridan. 

12.  Let  me  live  a  lifej  of  faith, 

Let  me  die  thy  people's  death.J — Newton. 

13.  He  gathered  new  and  greater  armies  from  his  own  land — from  subju- 

gated lands.  He  called  forth  the  young  and  brave— one  from  every 
household — from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Zuyder  Zee — from  Jura  to  the 
ocean.  He  marshalled  them  into  long  and  majestic  columns,  and 
went  forth  to  seize  that  universal  dominion  which  seemed  almost 
within  his  grasp. — Channing. 

*  It  sometimes  happens,  especially  in  poetry,  that  ambiguity  is  produced 
by  these  transpositions.    Thus  in  the  well-known  line  from  Gray's  Elegy— 

"And  all  the  air  a  solemn  stillness  holds" — 

it  is  impossible  to  ascertain  from  the  mere  form  of  construction  whether 
the  "air"  holds  the  "stillness,"  or  the  "stillness"  holds  the  "air."  We 
may,  however,  infer  that  "  stillness  "  is  the  object ;  and,  in  fact,  in  this  inverted 
order  the  object  generally  comes  next  to  the  verb. 

t  Model :  "  The  nouns  spring,  grove,  and  hill,  objects  of  the  transitive  verb 
haunt,  are  in  the  objective  case,  according  to  Rule  VI." 

J  Cognate  objectives. 


168  SYNTAX. 


SYNTAX    OIT    [RULE    VI. 

Violations  of  Rule  VI. 

I.  As  regards  nouns,  Rule  VI.  cannot  be  violated,  since  nouns  have 
no  inflection  for  the  objective  case. 

II.  As  regards  pronouns,  the  rule  is  seldom  violated  when  the 
pronoun  object  immediately  follows  the  verb  ;  but  there  is  lia- 
bility to  error  when  the  construction  is  inverted  or  elliptical  : 
thus— 

1.  They  that  honor  me  I  will  honor. 

Incorrect  :  "  they"  is  the  object  of  the  verb  "  will  honor,"  and  should 
therefore  be  in  the  objective  case—"  Them  that  honor,"  etc. 

2.  Let  the  able-bodied  fight,  and  they  that  are  feeble  do  guard  duty 

at  home. 

Incorrect:  "they"  is  designed  as  the  object  of  the  verb  "let"  un- 
derstood, and  should  therefore  be  them  (or  those).  Hence— 

Caution.  —  When  a  pronoun  object  is  at  a  distance  from  its  gov- 
erning verb,  eare  must  be  taken  to  use  the  objective  form  of  the  pro- 
noun. 


Special  Rules  under  Rule  VI. 

SPECIAL  RULE  I.— Some  transitive  verbs,  as  ALLOW,  BRING,  BUY,  etc, 
may  be  followed  by  two  objects— a  direct  and  an  indirect  object:  thus— 

1.  Send  us  [indirect]  a  message  [direct]. 

2.  Tell  him  [indirect]  to  write  [direct]. 

I.  The  principal  verbs  taking  this  construction  are : 


allow 

do 

make 

pour 

send 

bring 

draw 

offer 

present 

show 

buy 

get 

order 

promise 

sing 

carry 

give 

pass 

provide 

tell 

cost 

leave 

pay 

refuse 

throw 

deny 

lend 

play 

sell 

write 

II.  The  indirect  (or  personal)  object  always  precedes  the  direct, 
It  is  to  be  parsed  as  "in  the  objective  case,  indirect  object  of'1 
— the  verb. 


RULE   VL— COMPLEMENT  OF  TRANSITIVE  VERBS.       169 

SPECIAL  RULE  II.—  The  passive  forms  of  the  verbs  ALLOW,  BRING,  BUY, 
etc,,  sometimes  admit  a  direct  object:  thus— 

1.  We  were  promised  an  office. 

2.  He  was  refused  support. 

NOTE. — Verbs  in  the  passive  voice  almost  always  require  a  complement,  in 
the  nominative  case  (see  Kule  VII.) ;  and  Special  Rule  II.  is  designed  to  provide 
for  the  very  peculiar  use  of  an  object  after  certain  passive  verbs.  These  verbs 
(the  passives  of  those  enumerated  under  Special  Rule  I.),  which  in  the  active 
voice  take  both  a  direct  (or  personal)  and  an  indirect  object,  change  the  per- 
sonal object  into  the  subject  in  the  passive  construction,  and  retain  the  objec- 
tive complement.  For  explanation,  see  "Idiomatic  Forms,"  page  171. 

SPECIAL  KCLE  III.— Verbs  signifying  to  MAKE,  CREATE,  ELECT,  AP- 
POINT, NAME,  CALL,  and  some  others  of  like  meaning,  take  a  double  object 
—a  direct  object  and  an  attributive  complement  in  the  objective  case: 
tfms — 

1.  The  people  elected  Washington  president. 

2.  His  parents  named  him  John. 

3.  They  made  Hollo  captain. 

I.  In  this  construction  the  object  made,  named,  elected,  etc.,  is  the 
direct  object.     The  object  denoting  what  the  person  was  made, 
named,  elected,  etc.,  is  sometimes  called  the  factitive  object  ;*  but 
the  term  attributive  object  or  complement  is  preferable.     The 
direct  object  always  precedes  the  attributive  object. 

NOTE.— This  construction  is  often  treated  as  a  case  of  appositional  use— 
the  attributive  object  being  construed  as  an  appositive.  But  this  is  incorrect. 
The  attributive  object  has  a  very  peculiar  connection  with  the  verb ;  and,  with 
respect  to  meaning,  it  is  the  action  of  the  verb  as  modified  by  the  attributive 
complement  that  passes  over  to  the  direct  object.  Thus  it  is  the  action  of 
making  captain  that  passes  over  to  "Rollo,"  of  naming  John  that  passes  over 
to  "him,"  and  of  electing  president  that  passes  over  to  "Washington." 

II.  The  attributive  complement  may  be  an  infinitive :  as,  "  They 
made  him  (to)  labor." 

III.  In  the  passive  construction  the  direct  object  becomes  the  sub- 
ject, and  the  attributive  object  is  converted  into  the  predicate 
nominative  (see  Rule  VII.) . 

*  "  Factitive,"  from  Latin  facer e,factum,  to  make ;  because  the  verb  to  make 
stands  as  the  type  of  this  class  of  verbs. 

H 


170  SYNTAX. 

SPECIAL  KULE  IV.— Some  transitive  verbs  take  an  adjective  comple- 
ment modifying  their  object;  as— 

1.  Virtue  renders  life  happy. 

2.  This  struck  me  dumb. 

NOTE. — It  is  customary  to  treat  such  an  adjective  as  "happy"  (see  sentence 
1  above)  as  a  mere  modifier  (or  attributive)  of  "life,"  ignoring  wholly  its  use 
as  a  complement.  In  this  view  it  is  impossible  to  discriminate  in  analysis  be- 
tween "  We  call  the  man  rich  "  and  "  We  call  the  rich  man  " 


SPECIAL  RULE  V.— An  infinitive,  a  gerund,  or  a  participle  may  take 
an  adjective  as  its  complement :  thus— 

1.  To  be  virtuous  is  to  be  happy. 

2.  He  deceived  people  by  seeming  poor. 

3.  Feeling  cold,  he  put  on  his  coat. 


NOTES  ON  PECULIAR  AND  IDIOMATIC  FORMS. 

I.  **Ask"  and  ff  Teach. " — The  verbs  ask  and  teach  take  two  comple- 
ments, both  of  which  are  direct  objects ;  but  these  complements  are  of  a 
different  nature  from  the  complements  of  the  kind  of  verbs  considered 
under  Special  Rule  I.  (page  168).  Verbs  of  the  latter  sort,  as  allow, 
'bring,  buy,  etc.,  take  a  direct  and  an  indirect  object.  But  when  we  say, 
"The  teacher  asked  John  a  question,"  "Murray  taught  the  ~boy  gram- 
mar" "John"  and  "question,"  "boy"  and  "grammar"  form  each  a 
double  objective  complement  (both  being  direct  objects),  apparently 
as  though  ask  and  teach  expressed  at  the  same  time  two  distinct 
meanings.  And  in  Latin  the  verbs  aslc  and  teach  govern  two  accusa- 
tives. 

When  the  passive  construction  is  used,  the  noun  denoting  what  is 
asked  or  taught  remains  in  the  objective  case,  the  direct  object  of  the 
verb :  thus,  "John  was  asked  a  question  ;"  "The  boy  was  taught  gram- 
mar" (In  Latin,  this  object  retains  its  accusative  form.)  The  con- 
struction is  idiomatic,  and  should  be  treated  as  an  exceptional  in- 
stance of  a  passive  verb  having  the  power  of  governing  a  noun  in 
the  objective  case. 


RULE   VL— COMPLEMENT  OF  TRANSITIVE   VERBS. 

II.  Objective  after  Passive.— The  use  of  an  objective-case  comple- 
ment after  the  passive  forms  of  the  verbs  referred  to  in  Special  Rule  II. 
(page  169)  may  receive  some  illustration  from  what  has  been  said  re- 
specting the  verbs  ask  and  teach.  Take  the  examples — 

1.  The  conqueror  offered  them  [indirect  object]  their  lives  [direct  object]. 

2.  The  porter  refused  them  [indirect  object]  admittance  [direct  object]. 

Transforming  these  into  the  passive  construction,  we  may  say — 

1.  Their  lives  were  offered  them  [indirect  object]  by  the  conqueror. 

2.  Admittance  was  refused  them  [indireet  object]  by  the  porter. 

But  there  is  nothing  unusual  in  these  forms,  for  "  them"  is  in  both 
instances  an  indirect  object  (dative),  which  any  passive  verb  may  take. 
But  we  may  also  turn  the  sentences  thus — 

1.  They  were  offered  their  lives  [direct  object]  by  the  conqueror. 

2.  They  were  refused  admittance  [direct  object]  by  the  porter. 

The  use  of  a  direct  object  after  the  passive  forms  of  the  verbs  ask  and 
teach  is  a  regular,  though  rare,  construction ;  but  its  employment  after 
the  verbs  here  referred  to  is  irregular  and  idiomatic,  and  is  contrary  to 
the  general  analogies  of  language. 

It  is  probable  that  this  construction  has  arisen  from  the  operation 
of  the  "  Law  of  Extension  [or  Confusion]  of  Construction,"  that  is,  by 
the  extension  of  the  construction  in  ask  and  teach  to  verbs  of  a  differ- 
ent nature.  From  the  fact  that  we  may  say  "  He  was  taught  grammar" 
(in  which  "he"  is  regularly  made  the  subject  of  the  passive,  because 
forming  the  direct  object  of  the  verb  in  the  active  voice — "taught  him 
grammar"),  a  transition  has  insensibly  been  made  to  the  usage  of  say- 
ing, "  They  were  refused  admittance,"  which  presents  the  anomaly  of 
converting  an  indirect  object  into  a  subject.* 


EXERCISE    37, 

In  the  following  sentences  correct  the  violations  of 
Kule  VL 

1.  Who  did  you  say  you  met  this  morning  ? 

2.  Who  should  I  meet  the  other  day  but  him. 

*  This  construction  is  by  many  grammarians  pronounced  wholly  improper 
and  ungrammatical.  But  the  form  in  question  cannot  thus  be  proscribed,  for 
it  has  the  authority  of  usage,  both  popular  and  literary.  The  office  of  the 
grammarian  is  to  explain  what  is,  not  to  legislate  as  to  what  should  be. 


172  SYNTAX. 

3.  My  father  allowed  my  brother  and  I  to  accompany  him. 

4.  Let  you  and  I  advance. 

5.  We  don't  care  about  your  praising  we  poor  fellows. 

6.  He  wished  to  know  who  he  should  love. 

7.  I  do  not  know  who  to  send. 


2,  COMPLEMENT  OP  INTEANSITIVE  AND  PASSIVE  VEKBS, 

Rule  VII.— A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  the  complement  of  an 
intransitive  or  a  passive  verb  is  in  the  nominative  case :  thus— 

I  am  lie  ;  Washington  became  president ;  Napoleon  was  elected 
emperor. 

I.  The  complement  of  an  intransitive  or  a  passive  verb  is  gener- 
ally called  the  predicate  nominative. 

II.  Rule  VII.  is  confined  in  its  application  to  the  limited  number 
of  intransitive  verbs  of  incomplete  predication,  since  most  intran- 
sitive verbs  take  no  complement.     The  principal  intransitive 
verbs   of  incomplete  predication   are:  ~be,  become,  appear,  seem, 
stand,  walk  (and  other  verbs  of  position,  motion,  or  condition) ; 
together  with  the  passive  forms  of  the  verbs  make,  create,  elect, 
appoint,  name,  call,  and  others  of  like  meaning. 


EXERCISE    38. 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Rule  VII.* 

1.  Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers 

Life  is  but  an  empty  dream.—  Longfellow. 

2.  The  grave  is  not  its  goal. — Ibid. 

3.  It  is  I— be  not  afraid.— Bible. 

4.  Breathes  there  a  man  with  soul  so  dead, 
Who  never  to  himself  hath  said, 

This  is  my  own,  my  native  land  ? — Scott. 

5.  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man. — Pope. 

6.  And  the  earth  was  all  rest,  and  the  air  was  all  love. — Shelley, 

7.  The  better  part  of  valor  is  discretion. — Shakspeare. 


*  Model:  "The  noun  dream  used  as  the  complement  of  the  intransitive 
verb  is,  is  in  the  nominative  case,  according  to  Rule  VII." 


RULE   VIL— COMPLEMENT  OF  INTRANSITIVE   VERB&      173 

8.  The  other  shape — 

If  shape  it  might  be  called  that  shape  had  none 

Distinguishable  in  member,  joint,  or  limb ; 

Or  substance  might  be  called  that  shadow  seem'd, 

For  each  seem'd  either :— black  it  stood  as  night. — Milton. 


SYNTAX    OIT    RUJ^E    "VII. 

Special  Rules  under  Eule  VIL 

SPECIAL  EULE  I.— The  infinitives  and  the  participles  of  intransitive 
or  passive  verbs  may  take  as  complement  a  noun  or  pronoun  explan- 
atory of,  and  in  the  same  case  with,  a  noun  or  pronoun  which  precedes 
them, 

1.  It  was  thought  to  be  he. 

"  He  "  is  used  as  the  complement  of  "  to  be,"  and  is  in  the  nomina- 
tive case,  because  "  it "  is  in  the  nominative  case. 

2.  I  believed  him  to  be  a  scholar. 

"  Scholar  "  is  used  as  the  complement  of  the  verb  "  to  be,"  and  is  in 
the  objective  case,  because  "  him  "  is  in  the  objective  case,  object  of 
"  believed." 

3.  I  cannot  help  being  an  admirer  of  beauty. 

"Admirer"  is  explanatory  of  "I,"  and  hence  is  in  the  nominative 
case. 

SPECIAL  RULE  II.— An  intransitive  or  a  passive  verb  may  take  as 
complement  a  predicate  adjective  modifying  the  subject:  as— 

The  fields  are  green. 

The  nation  became  powerful. 

Some  men  are  called  liappy. 


Violations  of  Rule  VII. 

Case  1. — In  the  use  of  the  pronoun  who. 

The  pronoun  who  is  placed  before  the  verb  to  le,  representing  a 
complement  whose  natural  position  would  be  after  the  verb: 
thus,  "I  know  who  you  are"  ("I  know  you  are  John").  This 
peculiarity  of  position  greatly  increases  the  liability  to  a  viola- 
tion of  Rule  VII. :  thus: — 


174  SYNTAX. 

Whom  do  men  say  that  I  am  ? 

Substituting  another  pronoun  that  would  answer  to  the  pronoun 
"  whom,"  we  have, 

Do  men  say  that  I  am  he  f 

The  construction  here  plainly  requires  the  predicate  nominative: 
Hence — 

Caution  1. — In  the  employment  of  the  relative  and  interrogative 
pronoun  who  as  predicate  nominative,  care  must  be  taken  that  the 
pronoun  is  in  the  nominative  form. 

Case  2. — In  the  use  of  pronoun  complements  with  the  verbals  of 
intransitive  verbs  :  thus — 

Who  do  you  suppose  it  to  be  ? 

Incorrect :  "  who7'  is  designed  as  complement  of  "  to  be,"  indicating 
the  same  thing  as  "  it."  But  "  it "  is  in  the  objective  case,  as  object  of 
44  suppose ;"  so  that  "  who"  should  be  whom,  to  agree  in  case  with  "  it." 
Hence — 

It  being  her,  there  was  nothing  more  to  be  said. 

Incorrect:  the  participle  being  is  preceded  by  "it,"  in  the  nomina- 
tive case — so  that  "  her"  should  be  she.  Hence — 

Caution  2. — In  the  use  of  a  pronoun  as  complement  an  intransi- 
tive verbal  must  agree  in  case  with  the  noun  or  pronoun  preceding 
the  verbal. 

EXERCISE    39. 

In  the  following  sentences  correct  the  violations  of  Rule 
VII. 

1.  I  w^juld  act  the  same  part  if  I  were  him. 

2.  They  believed  it  to  be  I. 

3.  Whom  do  you  think  it  is  ? 

4.  Who  do  you  suppose  it  to  be  ? 

5.  It  is  them,  you  said,  deserve  most  blame. 

6.  I  little  thought  it  had  been  him. 

7.  Can  you  tell  whom  that  man  is  ? 

8.  It  might  have  been  him,  but  there  is  no  proof  of  it. 

9.  Let  him  be  whom  he  might  be. 

10.  Those  are  the  persons  who  he  thought  true  to  his  interests. 


RULE  VIII.- ADVERBIAL  RELATION.  175 


V.  ADVERBIAL   RELATION. 

Rule  VIIL— An  adverb  modifies  a  verb,  an  adjective,  or  another 
adverb. 

I.  The  responsives  yes  and  no  are  used  independently :  as,  "  Is  he 
at  home  ?"     "Yes "  (=He  is  at  home). 

II.  Modal  adverbs  are  often  used  to  modify  an  entire  proposition : 
as,  "  Truly,  the  world  does  move." 


EXERCISE    40, 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Rule  VIII.* 

1.  The  very  fairest  flowers  usually  wither  the  most  quickly. 

2.  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him  down. —  Wolfe. 

3.  And  now  a  bubble  bursts,  and  now  a  world. — Pope. 

4.  For  them  no  more  the  blazing  hearth  shall  burn. — Gray. 

5.  Ill  blows  the  wind  that  profits  noloo&y.—Shakspeare. 

6.  Freely  we  serve  because  we  freely  love. — Milton. 

7.  When  here,  but  three  days  since  I  came, 
Bewildered  in  pursuit  of  game, 

All  seemed  as  peaceful  and  as  still 
As  the  mist  slumbering  on  yon  hill.— 


APPLIED    SYNTAX    OF1    RULE 

Special  Rules  under  Rule  VIIL 

SPECIAL  RULE  I.— Adverbs  must  be  placed  in  the  position  that  will 
render  the  sentence  the  most  perspicuous  and  agreeable, 

Adverbs  are  for  the  most  part  placed  before  adjectives,  after  a  verb 
in  the  simple  form,  and  after  the  first  auxiliary  in  the  compound 
form.  This  rule  (which  applies  to  adverbial  phrases  as  well  as 
to  simple  adverbs)  is  a  very  general  principle,  to  which  there 
are  many  exceptions. 

NOTE.— The  proper  placing  of  adverbs  is  a  matter  of  nice  taste  and  of  keen 
judgment.  The  art  will  best  be  learned,  not  by  studying  rules  that  are  subject 
to  numberless  exceptions,  but  by  dealing  with  actual  examples. 

*  Model :  "The  adverb  very  modifies  the  adjective  fairest;  the  adverbs 
usually  and  most  quickly  modify  the  verb  wither,  according  to  Kule  VIII.1* 


176  SYNTAX. 

1.  We  cannot  deprive  them  of  merit  wholly. 

The  adverb  "wholly"  is  inelegantly  placed.  It  is  meant  to  relate 
to  the  verb  "  deprive,"  and  the  intervention  of  the  words  "  them  of 
merit "  between  the  adverb  and  the  verb  is  confusing.  It  should  be, 
44  We  cannot  wholly  deprive  them  of  merit." 

2.  I  hope  not  much  to  tire  those  I  shall  not  happen  to  please. — 

Doctor  Johnson. 

Doctor  Johnson  did  not  mean  to  say  that  he  did  not  much  hope 
to  tire,  but  that  he  hoped  not  to  tire  much.  The  sentence  should  be 
turned  in  this  manner :  "  I  hope  I  shall  not  much  tire  those  whom  I 
shall  [or  may]  not  happen  to  please." 

3.  This  mode  of  expression  rather  suits  familiar  than  grave  style. 

— Murray^s  Grammar. 

Better  thus :  "  This  mode  of  expression  suits  [a]  familiar  rather  than 
[a]  grave  style." 

4.  A  master-mind  was  equally  wanting  in  the  cabinet  and  in  the 

field. 

This  should  be,  "  Was  wanting  equally  in  the  cabinet,"  etc.  In  this 
example,  as  in  No.  3,  the  adverb  has  a  mixed  reference.  "Equally" 
modifies  "wanting,"  but  it  has  reference  also  to  the  phrase  "in  the 
cabinet  and  in  the  field."  The  principle  in  such  cases  is,  that  the  ad- 
verb should  be  placed  between  the  two  words  or  expressions  to  which 
it  has  reference. 

5.  I  have  been  disappointed  greatly  at  your  conduct. 

The  adverb  greatly  is  not  correctly  placed.  The  sentence  should 
read  thus :  "  I  have  been  greatly  disappointed,"  etc.  The  principle  in 
such  cases  is,  that  in  compound  tenses  adverbs  should  be  inserted  be- 
tween the  auxiliary  and  the  participle. 

6.  He  used  to  often  come. 

I  wished  to  really  know. 

With  the  simple  infinitive,  the  adverb  must  never  separate  the  sign 
to  from  the  verb ;  it  must  either  precede  or  it  must  follow  the  whole 
infinitive  form.  Thus,  "  He  used  often  to  come,"  or  "  to  come  often.'1'' 
"  I  wished  really  to  know,"  or  "  to  know  really."  With  the  compound 
infinitive  the  same  rule  applies  as  in  the  compound  tenses.  We  say, 
"  It  is  believed  to  have  often  happened ;"  "  He  is  thought  to  be  well 
informed  on  that  subject." 


RULE   VIII.— ADVERBIAL  RELATION.  177 

Only.— The  most  troublesome  of  English  adverbs  is  "  only.1'*  Ac- 
cording as  this  word  is  placed  in  a  sentence,  it  may  express  several 
very  different  meanings. 

1.  u  Only  he  mourned  for  his  brother."    "Only"  here  expresses  an  antithet- 

ical relation  equivalent  to  but.  He  was  generally  a  cold-hearted  man, 
only  (but,  as  ail  exception  to  his  general  character)  he  mourned  for 
his  brother. 

2.  "He-only  [alone]  mourned  for  his  brother."    No  one  else  mourned  for 

him. 

3.  "  He  o?ify-mourned  for  his  brother."    He  did  nothing  else. 

4.  "  He  mourned  only  for  his  brother."    And  for  no  other  reason. 

5.  "  He  mourned  for  his  only  brother."    His  sole  brother ;  only,  an  adjective. 

6.  "He  mourned  for  his  brother  only."    And  for  no  one  else  ("only"^ 

alone). 

The  following  are  instances  of  the  faulty  placing  of  this  adverb : 

1.  A  term  which  only  implies  the  idea  of  persons. 

The  force  of  exclusion  possessed  by  "only"  is  meant  to  apply  not 
to  the  word  "implies,"  but  to  the  word  "persons."  It  should  be, 
"  which  implies  the  idea  of  persons  only." 

2.  I  can  only  regard  them  as  Scotticisms. 

The  force  of  exclusion  in  "  only  "  is  meant  to  apply  not  to  the  verb 
"  regard,"  but  to  the  noun  "  Scotticisms."  The  sentence  should  be, 
"  I  can  regard  them  only  as  Scotticisms." 

3.  When  the  article  stands  only  before  the  first  of  two  or  more  connected 

nouns. 

This  should  be,  "  When  the  article  stands  before  only  the  first,"  etc. 

SPECIAL  KULE  II.— An  adverb  should  not  be  misused  for  a  predicate 
adjective  :  thus— 

1.  The  rose  smells  sweet — not  sweetly. 

2.  Gutturals  sound  harsh — not  harshly. 

3.  Mary  looks  cold — not  coldly. 

We  say,  "Mary  looks  cold"  [=she  is  cold  in  look  or  appearance], 
because  we  do  not  wish  to  mark  the  manner  of  looking,  but  to  denote  a 
quality  of  Mary.  If  we  change  the  intransitive  into  the  transitive  con- 
struction by  the  addition  of  a  preposition,  and  say, "  Mary  looks  on  John 

*  "A  blunder  of  which  the  instances  are  innumerable  is  the  misplacing  of 
the  word  '  only.'  Indeed,  this  is  so  common,  so  absolutely  universal,  one 
may  almost  say  that  'only'  cannot  be  found  in  its  proper  place  in  any  book 
within  the  whole  range  of  English  literature."— Gould's  Good  English,  p.  100. 

112 


178  -SYNTAX. 

coldly"  the  use  of  the  adverb  is  correct,  because  in  this  instance  we  wish 
to  denote  the  manner  of  her  looking  on,  and  not  a  quality  of  Mary. 

SPECIAL  RULE  III.— Two  negatives  should  never  be  used  to  express  a 
negation, 

1.  I  have  not  done  nothing. 

This  means  I  have  done  something.  If  a  negation  is  intended,  say, 
u I  have  done  nothing"  or,  " I  have  not  done  anything" 

2.  He  has  eaten  no  bread  nor  drunk  no  water  these  two  days. 
The  negative  in  nor  (=not  or),  together  with  the  wTord  no  before 

water,  makes  a  double  negative.  Correct  thus:  "He  has  eaten  no 
bread  and  he  has  drunk  no  water;"  or,  "He  has  neither  eaten  any 
bread  nor  has  he  drunk  any  water,"  etc. 

NOTE. — Double  negatives  are  elegantly  used  to  express  an  affirmative  in 
an  indirect  way.  In  plaee  of  saying,  "I  am  somewhat  acquainted 
with  his  virtues,"  the  sentence  might  be  turned  thus:  "I  am  not  un- 
acquainted  with  his  virtues." 

SPECIAL  ROLE  IV.— A  noun  denoting  measure  of  TIME,  DISTANCE, 
VALUE,  etc,,  may  be  used  as  an  objective  adverbial  without  a  preposi- 
tion: thus— 

1.  The  man  is  seventy  years  old. 

2.  Our  school  is  three  miles  from  the  church. 

3.  You  are  paid  twenty  dollars  a  week. 


EXERCISE    41. 

In  the  following  sentences  correct  the  errors  in  the  use 
of  adverbs. 

1.  We  always  should  prefer  our  duty  to  our  pleasure. 

2.  They  seemed  to  be  nearly  dressed  alike. 

3.  The  heavenly  bodies  are  in  motion  perpetually. 

4.  The  colon  may  be  properly  applied  in  the  following  case. 

5.  By  greatness  I  not  only  mean  the  bulk  of  any  single  object,  but  the 

largeness  of  the  whole  view. 

6.  Thales  was  not  only  famous  for  his  knowledge  of  nature,  but  for  his 

moral  wisdom. 

7.  The  apple  tastes  sweetly. 

8.  The  dog  smells  disagreeably. 

9.  Velvet  feels  smoothly. 

10.  I  have  not  had  no  dinner. 

11.  I  will  not  take  that  course  by  no  means. 

12.  He  spoke  the  piece  clear  and  distinct. 


RULE  IX.— PRONOUN  AND  ANTECEDENT.  179 


VI.  REPRESENTATIVE  RELATION. 
PKONOOT  AND  ANTECEDENT, 

Rule  IX.— A  pronoun  agrees  in  person,  gender,  and  number 
with  its  antecedent  or  the  word  that  it  represents:  thus— 

To  Mm  who  in  the  love  of  nature  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 
A  various  language. 

I.  Relatives  agree  with  their  antecedents;  personal  and  other  pro- 
nouns, with  the  word  (noun  or  its  equivalent)  represented. 

II.  Pronouns  agree  in  person,  gender,  and  number  with  their  ante- 
cedents or  represented  words ;  but  the  case  of  a  pronoun  is  deter- 
mined by  its  construction  in  the  sentence.     Hence  it  usually 
takes  two  rules  to  parse  a  pronoun — Rule  IX.  for  the  concord 
of  person,  gender,  and  number,  and  the  appropriate  rule  of  syn- 
tax for  its  case. 


EXERCISE    42. 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Rule  IX.* 

1.  Fools  who  came  to  scoff  remained  to  pray.  — Goldsmith. 

2.  This  petulance  ruined  Essex,  who  had  to  deal  with  a  spirit  naturally  as 

proud  as  his  own. — Macaulay. 
8.  Shall  he  alone  whom  rational  we  call. 

Be  pleased  with  nothing,  if  not  blessed  with  all? — Jbpe. 

4.  A  land  of  slaves  shall  ne'er  be  mine. — Byron. 

5.  Some  natural  tears  they  dropped,  but  wiped  them  soon. — Milton. 

6.  They  [the  Indians]  are  shrinking  before  the  mighty  tide  which  is  press- 

ing them  away ;  they  must  soon  hear  the  roar  of  the  last  wave,  which 
will  settle  over  them  forever.— Sprague. 

7.  Cold  is  thy  brow,  my  son  !  and  I  am  chill, 

As  to  my  bosom  I  have  tried  to  press  thee. — Willis. 


*  Mode! :  "The  relative  pronoun  who  is  of  the  third  person,  plural  number, 
and  common  gender,  to  agree  with  its  antecedent  fools,  according  to  Rule  IX. 
It  is  in  the  nominative  case  according  to  Rule  I." 


180  SYNTAX. 

8.  Woodman,  spare  that  tree; 

Touch  Dot  a  single  bough ; 
In  youth  it  sheltered  me, 

And  I'll  protect  it  now. 
'Twas  my  forefather's  hand 

That  placed  it  near  his  cot ; 
Then,  woodman,  let  it  stand; 

Thy  axe  shall  harm  it  not.—  Morris. 


SYNTAX    OIT    RULE    IX. 

Special  Rules  under  Rule  IX. 

SPECIAL  RULE  I.— A  pronoun  in  the  singular  is  used  to  represent— 

1.  Two  or  more  words  in  the  singular  number  connected  by  or 
or  nor. 

2.  A  collective  noun  denoting  unity  of  idea. 

3.  The  words  each,  every,  either,  neither,  one,  used  either  with  or 
without  a  noun  or  nouns,  however  connected. 

I.  Correct  Constructions. — The  following  are  instances  of  correct 
constructions  under  Special  Rule  I. : 

1.  But  love  or  friendship,  with  its  pleasures  and  embarrassments, 

was  insufficient  to  occupy  Swift's  active  mind. 

2.  The  army  dragged  itself  along  through  the  mud. 
f  Each  in  his  narrow  cell  forever  laid. 

Every  season  has  its  peculiar  power  of  striking  the  mind. 

3.  -j  Has  either  girl  finished  her  lesson  ? 

Neither  of  these  classifications  is  in  itself  erroneous. 
One  is  seldom  at  a  loss  what  to  do  with  his  money. 

II.  Incorrect  Constructions. — The  following  are  instances  of  viola- 
tions of  Special  Rule  I. : 

1.  "When  he  shoots  a  partridge,  a  woodcock,  or  a  pheasant,  he 

gives  them  away. 

2.  Society  is  not  always   answerable   for  the   conduct   of  their 

members. 

(  Each  was  the  centre  of  their  own  fair  world. 
I  Every  plant  and  every  flower  proclaims  their  Maker's  praise. 

3.  <  Never  was  either  to  see  their  native  land  again. 

Neither  boy  has  learned  their  lesson. 
[  He  cannot  see  one  in  prosperity  without  envying  them. 


RULE  IX.— PRONOUN  AND  ANTECEDENT.  181 

SPECIAL  RULE  II.— A  pronoun  in  the  plural  number  is  used  to  repre- 
sent— 

1.  Two  or  more  words  in  the  singular  number  connected  by  and, 
and  denoting  plurality  of  idea. 

2.  A  collective  noun  denoting  plurality  of  idea. 

I.  Correct  Constructions. — f  he  following  are  instances  of  correct 
constructions  under  Special  Rule  II. : 

1.  Both  Cato  and  Cicero  loved  their  country. 

2.  The  clergy  began  to  withdraw  themselves. 

II.  Incorrect  Constructions, — The  following  are  instances  of  viola- 
tions of  Special  Rule  II. : 

1.  Every  man  is  entitled  to  liberty  of  conscience  and  freedom  of 

opinion,  if  he  does  not  pervert  it  to  the  injury  of  others. 

2.  The  people  were  astonished  at  its  [the  people's]  success. 

SPECIAL  RULE  III.— The  relatives  WHO  and  WHICH  are  generally  used 
to  introduce  explanatory  clauses ;  THAT  is  used  only  in  introducing  re- 
strictive clauses, 

I.  A  relative  is  explanatory  when  it  continues  the  idea  expressed 
by  the  antecedent,  adding  another  thought,  or  wrhen  it  is  paren- 
thetical :  thus — 

1.  He  gave  me  a  letter,  which  he  requested  me  to  read. 

2.  Words,  which  are  signs  of  ideas,  may  be  divided  into  eight  parts 

of  speech. 

In  their  explanatory  use,  who  and  which  introduce  an  additional 
proposition,  and  are  equivalent  to  and  he,  and  she,  and  it,  and  this, 
and  they  (or  these},  etc.  Thus  sentence  1  above  is  equivalent  to 
"  He  gave  me  a  letter,  and  he  requested  me  to  read  it."  Sen- 
tence 2  is  equivalent  to  "  Words,  and  these  are  the  signs  of  ideas, 
may,"  etc. 

II.  A  relative  pronoun  is  restrictive  when,  like  an  adjective,  it  limits 
the  idea  denoted  by  the  antecedent :  thus — 

1.  The  army  which  conquered  at  Waterloo  was  commanded  by  Wel- 

lington (="The  conquering  army  at  Waterloo,"  etc.). 

2.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them  (="The  evil  done  by  men," 

etc.). 

III.  It  is  stated  in  Special  Rule  III.  that  the  relative  that  is  used 
restrictively  only,  and  that  who  and  which  are  generally  used  in 
explanatory  clauses.     A  rigid  rule  confining  the  relatives  who 


182  SYNTAX. 

and  which  to  this  explanatory  use  has  sometimes  been  laid 
down.*  But  it  does  not  seem  possible  to  draw  the  line  thus 
precisely,  for  it  frequently  happens  that  who  or  which  is  rightly 
used  to  introduce  a  restrictive  clause.  It  may.  however,  be 
stated  as  a  general  directive  principle  that  who  and  which  are  to 
be  used  in  introducing  explanatory  clauses,  and  clauses  not 
marlcedly  restrictive,  but  that  that  is  to  be  used  in  introducing 
a  clause  of  emphatic  restriction.  In  particular,  that  is  to  be 
used  in  preference  to  who  or  ichich  in  the  following  instances : 

1.  After  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree:  as,  "This  is  the 
lest  that  I  have  seen." 

2.  After  interrogative  pronouns,  and  demonstrative  and  indefinite 
adjectives  or  pronouns :   as,  "  Who  that  has  common-sense  can 
say  so  ?"    " All  that  he  knows."    "  Some  people  that  were  there." 
"Any  man  that  says  so."     "  The  same  that  I  bought." 

3.  After  the  verb  to  le  used  impersonally :  as,  "  It  icas  my  father 
that  said  so." 

4.  After  a  joint  reference  to  persons  and  things:  as,  "The  lady 
and  the  lapdog  that  we  saw." 

5.  After  an  antecedent  consisting  of  a  noun  used  in  an  unlimited 
sense :  as,  "  Thoughts  that  breathe,  and  words  that  burn." 

SPECIAL  RULE  IV.— In  the  position  of  singular  pronouns  of  different 
persons,  the  second  precedes  the  others,  and  the  third  precedes  the  first, 

Of  the  plural  pronouns,  WE  has  the  first  place,  YOU  the  second,  and 
THEY  the  third:  thus— 

1 .  You  and  he  will  go. 

2.  He  and  /  will  go. 

1  3.  We  and  they  start  to-morrow. 

The  reason  of  the  difference  in  the  position  of  the  singular  and  of 
the  plural  pronouns  is  this:  In  the  singular  number,  the  speaker  (/) 
.puts  himself  after  the  person  spoken  to  and  the  person  spoken  of.  as  a 
matter  of  politeness.  But  in  the  plural  number,  for  the  same  reason, 
he  puts  those  who  are  most  intimately  associated  with  him  in  the  first 
place  (unavoidably  including  himself  and  making  "we "),  then  the 
persons  spoken  to,  and  then  those  spoken  of. 

*  Especially  by  Bain  (English  Grammar,  page  23). 


RULE  IX.-PRONOUN  AND  ANTECEDENT.  183 

SPECIAL  RULE  V.— A  pronoun  representing  words  of  different  persons 
should  agree  with  the  first  person  rather  than  with  the  second,  and  with 
the  second  rather  than  with  the  third :  thus— 

1.  John  and  you  and  I  will  do  our  duty. 

2.  You  and  Mary  may  do  the  work  between  you. 


Violations  of  Rule  IX. 

Case  1. —  When  there  is  obscurity  in  the  reference  of  a  pronoun 
to  its  antecedent  or  represented  word :  thus — 

He  [Philip]  wrote  to  that  distinguished  philosopher  [Aristotle] 
in  terms  the  most  polite  and  flattering,  begging  of  him  [Aris- 
totle] to  undertake  his  [Alexander's]  education,  and  to  bestow 
upon  him  [Alexander]  those  useful  lessons  which  7m  [Philip's] 
numerous  avocations  would  not  allow  him  [Philip]  to  bestow. — 
Goldsmith. 

In  tliis  sentence  it  is  very  difficult  to  determine  what  is  the  noun 
represented  by  each  pronoun,  and  this  makes  the  entire  proposition 
ambiguous.  Hence — 

Caution  1. — There  should  be  no  obscurity  in  the  reference  of  a 
pronoun  to  its  antecedent  or  represented  word.* 

Case  2. — In  the  use  of  a  relative  without  a  proper  antecedent  : 
thus — 

Be  diligent ;  without  which  you  can  never  succeed. 

In  this  sentence  the  only  antecedent  that  the  relative  "which"  can 
refer  to  is  the  adjective  "  diligent ;"  but  from  its  very  nature  a  relative 
can  represent  only  a  noun,  or  some  equivalent  of  a  noun. 

The  method  of  dealing  with  this  kind  of  sentence  is  to  use,  in  place 
of  the  relative,  an  abstract  noun  expressing  the  quality  implied  in  the 

*  It  often  happens  that,  in  order  to  remove  the  ambiguity  occasioned  by 
pronouns  of  dubious  reference,  the  only  method  of  correction  is  to  repeat  the 
noun,  or  some  expression  equivalent  to  the  noun  to  be  represented.  Thus 
the  sentence  given  above  may  be  corrected  thus :  "  Philip  wrote  to  Aristotle  in 
terms  the  most  polite  and  flattering,  begging  of  that  distinguished  philosopher  to 
undertake  the  education  of  Alexander,  and  to  bestow  upon  him  those  useful 
lessons  that  his  own  numerous  avocations  would  not  allow  him  to  bestow." 


184  SYNTAX. 

adjective.  Tims,  "Be  diligent;  for  without  diligence  you  cannot  suc- 
ceed." Hence — 

Caution  2. — JEvery  relative  pronoun  should  have  for  its  ante- 
cedent  a  noun  or  its  equivalent. 

Case  3. — In  the  improper  ellipsis  of  a  relative  :  thus — 
He  is  still  in  the  situation  you  saw  him. 

The  relative  pronoun  which,  connected  by  in,  is  here  necessary  in 
order  to  join  the  clause  "you  saw  him"  with  the  first  statement. 
Thus,  "  He  is  still  in  the  situation  in  which  you  saw  him."  Without 
this  the  parts  of  the  sentence  lack  proper  cohesion.  Hence — 

Caution  3. — The  relative,  and  the  preposition  governing  it,  should 
not  be  omitted  when  they  are  necessary  to  give  connection  to  the  sen- 
tence. 

NOTES   ON  PECULIAR  AND  IDIOMATIC   FORMS. 

I.  Problem  of  Gender. — It  is  customary  to  use  the  masculine  pro- 
noun of  the  third  person  singular  when  reference  is  made  to  a  word, 
of  indeterminate  gender :  thus,  "  Let  every  one  attend  to  his  own  bus- 
iness." "  A  parent  should  love  his  child."  A  difficulty  arises  when 
we  wish  to  represent  two  singular  nouns  of  different  genders  taken 
separately :  as — 

If  an  ox  gore  a  man  or  a  woman  so  that  .  .  .  die. 

To  use  the  plural  pronoun,  "  they  die,"  violates  Special  Rule  I. ;  and 
as  in  English  there  is  no  third  personal  pronoun  singular  of  common 
gender,  it  becomes  necessary  in  such  cases  to  make  a  clumsy  repetition 
of  pronouns  of  corresponding  genders :  thus,  "  If  an  ox  gore  a  man  or 
a  woman  so  that  he  or  she  die."  Most  writers  prefer  to  use  the  plural 
pronoun,  disregarding  the  principle  in  Special  Rule  I.,  rather  than 
adopt  this  formal  iteration.* 

*  Cobbett  (English  Grammar}  insists  strongly  on  the  repetition  of  the  pro- 
noun in  different  genders,  and  holds  that,  however  disagreeable  repetition  may 
be,  it  is  better  than  obscurity  or  inaccuracy.  This  point  is  touched  in  the  parody 
on  Cobbett's  style  in  the  Brothers  Smith's  Rejected  Addresses:  "I  take  it  for 
granted  that  every  intelligent  man,  woman,  and  child  to  whom  I  address  my- 
self has  stood  severally  and  respectively  in  Little  Russell  Street,  and  cast  their, 
his,  her,  and  its  eyes  on  the  outside  of  this  building  before  they  paid  their 
money  to  view  the  inside." 


RULE  IX.— PRONOUN  AND  ANTECEDENT.  185 

II.  Uses  of  "which."— The  relative  which  may  have  a  proposition 
for  its  antecedent :  thus,  "  Caesar  crossed  the  Rubicon,  lohich  was  in  ef- 
fect a  declaration  of  war."      Here  "  which"  has  for  antecedent,  not  the 
noun  "  Rubicon,"  but  the  entire  proposition  "  Caesar  crossed  the  Rubi- 
con." 

It  is  also  to  be  noted  that,  when  the  antecedent  is  a  collective 
noun  expressing  unity  of  idea,  even  though  it  implies  persons,  the 
relative  which,  and  not  who,  is  generally  used.  Thus,  "  The  family 
which  they  considered  as  usurpers." 

A  proper  name  taken  merely  as  a  name,  or  an  appellative  taken  in 
any  sense  not  strictly  personal,  is  represented  by  which,  and  not  by 
who :  as,  "Herod — which  is  but  another  name  for  cruelty." 

III.  ff  Whose."  —  By   some  the  rule   has  been   laid  down  that 
whose  should  be  employed  to  represent  only  masculine  or  feminine 
nouns;  but  there  is  no  justification  of  this,  either  in  etymology  or  in 
the  best  modern  usage.     In  Anglo-Saxon  the  genitive  hwces  was  em- 
ployed for  the  neuter  as  well  as  for  the  masculine  and  feminine.    In  the 
poets  we  constantly  find  whose  referring  to  neuter  nouns :  thus — 

1.  That  undiscovered  country 

From  whose  bourn  no  traveller  returns. — Shalc^eare. 

2.  The  poor  banished  insects  ivhose  intent, 
Though  they  did  ill,  was  innocent.— Shelley. 

IV.  Relatives  with  Prepositions.— The  relative  that  cannot  be  pre- 
ceded by  its  governing  preposition;  the  preposition  must  be  placed 
at  the  end  of  the  clause :  as,  "  The  steamboat  that  I  went  up  the  river 
in  was  sunk." 

The  prepositions  governing  whom  and  which  may  be  placed  at  the 
end  of  the  clause,  but  modern  usage  prefers  placing  them  immediate- 
ly before  the  relatives.  Thus  it  is  deemed  more  elegant  to  say,  "  The 
steamer  in  which  I  went  up  the  river,"  than  "  The  steamer  which  I  went 
up  the  river  in."  In  many  cases  a  much  more  vigorous  and  effective 
statement  is  made  by  introducing  a  clause  by  that,  and  following  it  by 
its  governing  preposition,  than  by  introducing  it  by  which  or  whom, 
preceded  by  its  governing  preposition.  Thus,  "The  musquito  is 
good  for  nothing  that  I  know  of"  is  much  less  pompous  than  "  The 
musquito  is  good  for  nothing  of  which  I  know." 


186  SYNTAX. 

V.  An  exception  to  the  principle  stated  in  Caution  2  is  found  in 
the  following  idiomatic  construction : 

And  do  yon  now  strew  flowers  in  Jiis  way, 

That  comes  in  triumph  over  Pompey's  blood? — tihakspeare. 

Here  "  that "  has  for  its  antecedent  the  possessive  pronoun  "  his ;"  but 
the  objection  that  "his"  is  a  mere  adjunct  may  be  met  by  the  state- 
ment that  "his"  is  here  equivalent  to  of  Mm,  and  that  him,  implied  in 
his,  is  the  logical  antecedent  of  the  relative  "that." 

VI.  As  and  But. — As  is  often  used  as  a  substitute  for  a  relative  pro- 
noun, especially  after  same  and  such :  thus — 

1.  Art  thou  afeard 
To  be  the  same  in  thine  own  act  and  valor 
As  thou  art  in  desire  ? 

2.  Tears  such  as  angels  weep  burst  forth. 

But  is  used  as  a  relative  when  it  follows  a  negative.    Its  force  is 
then  equivalent  to  who  +  not,  or  which  -f-  not :  thus — 

There  is  no  fireside,  howsoe'er  defended, 
But  has  [= which  has  not]  one  vacant  chair 


EXERCISE    43, 

In  the  following  sentences  correct  the  violations  of  Rule 
IX. 

1.  A  civilized  people  has  no  right  to  violate  their  solemn  obligations. 

2.  Let  each  esteem  others  better  than  themselves. 

3.  We  see  the  beautiful  variety  of  colors  in  the  rainbow,  and  are  led  to 

consider  the  cause  of  it. 

4.  At  home  I  studied  geometry,  that  I  found  useful  afterwards. 

5.  A  man  may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture,  as  well  as  read 

them  in  a  book. 

6.  This  is  the  friend  which  I  love. 

7.  Man  is  not  such  a  machine  as  a  watch  or  a  clock,  which  move  merely 

as  they  are  moved. 

8.  Had  the  doctor  been  contented  to  take  my  dining-tables,  as  anybody 

in  their  senses  would  have  done. 

9.  Not  on  outward  charms  should  man  or  woman  build  their  pretensions 

to  please. 

10.  Each  contributed  what  they  could. 

11.  Those  that  have  the  Fourth  Reader  will  bring  them  with  them. 

12.  An  invitation  was  sent  to  me  and  George. 


RULE  X.—TI1E  PREPOSITION  AND  ITS  OBJECT.          187 


VII.  CONNECTIVE    RELATION. 
1,  THE  PREPOSITION  AND  ITS  OBJECT, 

Rule  X,  —  1.  A  preposition  joins  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  some 
other  word 

2.  A  noun  or  pronoun  depending  on  a  preposition  is  in  the 
objective  case. 


EXERCISE    44, 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Kule  X.* 

1.  To  him  who  in  the  love  of  Nature  holds 
Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 
A  various  language. — Bryant. 

2.  The  eulogium  pronounced  on  the  character  of  the  State  of  South  Carolina, 

by  the  honorable  gentleman,  for  her  Revolutionary  and  other  merits, 
meets  my  hearty  concurrence. — Daniel  Webster. 
8.  Into  the  jaws  of  death,  into  the  mouth  of  hell 
Rode  the  Three  Hundred.— Tennyson. 

4.  At  midnight,  in  his  guarded  tent, 

The  Turk  was  dreaming  of  the  hour 
"When  Greece,  her  knee  in  suppliance  bent, 
Should  tremble  at  his  power. — Halleck. 

5.  But  now  no  sound  of  laughter  was  heard  amongst  the  foes, 

A  wild  and  wrathful  clamor  from  all  the  vanguard  rose. — Macaulay. 

6.  Run  to  your  houses,  fall  upon  your  knees, 
Pray  to  the  gods  to  intermit  the  plague 

That  needs  must  light  on  this  ingratitude. — Shakspeare. 

7.  The  trees  are  now  in  their  fullest  foliage  and  brightest  verdure;  the 

woods  are  gay  with  the  clustered  flowers  of  the  laurel;  the  air  is  per- 
fumed by  the  sweetbrier  and  the  wild  rose ;  the  meadows  are  enamelled 
with  clover  blossoms ;  while  the  young  apple,  the  peach,  and  the  plum 
begin  to  swell,  and  the  cherry  to  glow  among  the  green  leaves.  —  Wash- 
ington Irving. 

*  Model :  "The  preposition  to  joins  the  pronoun  him  to  the  verb  speaks; 
him  is  in  the  objective  case,  according  to  Rule  X." 


188  SYNTAX. 


SYNTAX    OF    RULE    X. 

Violations  under  Rule  X. 

Case  1.  —  When  the  preposition  is  remote  from  the  pronoun  ob- 
ject :  as  — 

Who  did  you  get  that  bookfromf 

This  sentence  exemplifies  a  common  colloquial  arrangement  of 
words;  and  in  this  type  of  sentence  the  remoteness  of  the  object  from 
its  governing  preposition  renders  the  liability  to  error  in  the  case-form 
very  great.  Hence  — 

Caution  1.  —  When  a  governing  preposition  is  remote  from  its 
pronoun  object,  care  must  be  taken  that  the  pronoun  has  the  objective 
form. 

Case  2.  —  When  in  two  or  more  pronoun  objects  there  is  an  ellip- 
sis of  a  governing  preposition  :  as  — 

I  lent  the  book  to  some  one,  I  know  not  who. 

In  this  sentence  there  is  an  ellipsis  of  the  preposition  to  before  who; 
but  to  who  is  a  violation  of  Rule  X.  It  should  be  :  "I  know  not 
whom,"  or  "  I  know  not  to  whom"  Hence  — 

Caution  2.  —  When  there  occurs  an  ellipsis  of  a  governing  prep- 
osition, care  should  be  taken  that  the  pronoun  object  has  the  objective 
form. 

NOTES  ON  PECULIAR  AND  IDIOMATIC  FORMS. 

I.  Between  and  Among.  —  Beticeen  literally  signifies  ly  twain,  that 
is,  by  two's.     Hence  it  cannot  apply  to  more  than  two.     We  may  say, 
"  Mother  divided  the  apple  between  sister  and  me"  but  not  "  between 
John,  James,  and  Martha"    The  preposition  among  or  amongst  is  used 
to  denote  distribution  applied  to  more  than  two  :  as,  "  The  booty  was 
divided  among  the  forty  thieves." 

II.  Appropriate  Prepositions.  —  There  are  many  words  that  can  be 
followed  by  but  one  preposition;  there  are  other  words  that  admit 
different  prepositions,  the  sense   greatly  varying  with   each.      Care 


RULE  XL— THE  CONJUNCTION.  189 

should  be  taken  to  select  the  preposition  fitted  to  denote  the  precise 
relation  intended  to  be  denoted.  (For  this  purpose  reference  should, 
in  cases  of  doubt,  be  made  to  the  dictionary.) 

III.  Suppression  of  Object. — The  object  of  a  preposition  is  some- 
times suppressed :  as,  "  We  found  the  man  [that]  we  were  looking 
for." 

IV.  But. — But  used  in  such  a  construction  as  "all  but  him"  is  often 
wrongly  taken  for  a  conjunction.     The  words  differ  in  origin.     But  is 
an  old  preposition  meaning  literally  on  the  outside  of,  and  hence  without 
or  except.    Phrases  like  "  all  or  none  but  he"  are  ungrammatical.     But 
may  be  followed  by  the  infinitive  without  to :  as,  "  He  does  nothing 
~but  [to]  sleep."  

EXERCISE    45. 

Ill   the   following    sentences    correct    the   violations   of 
Eule  X. 

1.  Who  did  you  vote  for  ? 

2.  There  is  no  one  at  home  now  besides  mother,  uncle,  and  I. 

3.  There  were  no  marks  to  show  who  the  sheep  belonged  to. 

4.  Let  that  remain  a  secret  between  you  and  I. 

5.  I  bestow  my  favors  on  whoever  I  will. 

6.  Who  you  spend  your  evenings  with  is  well  known. 

7.  So  you  must  ride 

On  horseback  after  we. 

8.  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck 
W'hence  all  but  he  had  fled. 

9.  The  money  is  to  be  divided  between  the  three  brothers. 
10.  No  one  but  he  should  be  about  the  king. 


2,  THE  CONJUNCTION, 

Rule  XL  — Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,  or  proposi- 
tions: as— 

1.  Oxygen  AND  hydrogen  are  called  gases. 

2.  He  strove  with  all  his  powers  AND  to  a  noble  end. 

3.  [The  sun  shines]  BECAUSE  [the  sky  is  clear]. 


190  SYNTAX. 

To  the  rule  that  conjunctions  have  a  connective  office  there  appear  to 
be  two  exceptions : 

1.  The  conjunction  that  sometimes  serves  merely  to  introduce  a 
clause  that  is  the  subject  of  the  principal  statement :  as,  "  That 
you  have  wronged  me  doth  appear  in  this."     But  this  is  merely 
a  case  of  ellipsis  and  inversion,  the  construction  being  equiva- 
lent to,  "  It  doth  appear  in  this  that  you  have  wronged  me.'1 

2.  In  the  construction  with  correlative  conjunctions,  the  antecedent 
or  introductory  conjunction  can  scarcely  be  said  to  connect,  the 
connective  force  belonging  to  the  subsequent  conjunction.     In 
parsing,  it  is  proper  to  call  the  first  of  a  pair  of  corresponding 
conjunctions  an  introductory  correlative  conjunction. 


EXERCISE    46. 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Eule  XI. 

1.  Lightly  and  brightly  breaks  away 

The  morning  from  her  mantle  gray.— Byron. 

2.  Right  sharp  and  quick  the  bells  all  night 
Rang  out  from  Bristol  town. — Macaulay. 

3.  Men  must  work  and  women  must  weep, 

Though  storms  be  hidden  and  waters  d.eep.—Kingsley. 

4.  A  wise  man  will  make  haste  to  forgive,  because  he  knows  the  true  value 

of  time,  and  will  not  suffer  it  to  pass  away  in  unnecessary  pain. — John- 
son. 

5.  These  wave  their  town  flag  in  the  arched  gateway ;  and  stand,  rolling 

their  drum ;  but  to  no  purpose.— Carlyle. 

6.  For  none  made  sweeter  melody 

Than  did  the  poor  blind  boy. — Wordsworth. 

7.  Whether  the  thing  was  green  or  blue.— Colman. 

8.  No  leave  ask'st  thou  of  either  wind  or  tide.— Joanna  Baillie. 

9.  Whether  he  was  combined 
With  those  of  Norway ;  or  did  line  the  rebel 
With  hidden  help  and  vantage ;  or  that  with  both 

He  labor'd  in  his  country's  wrack,  I  know  not.—  Shakspeare. 
10.  This,  I  think,  I  may  at  least  say,  that  we  should  have  a  great  many  fewer 
disputes  in  the  world,  if  words  were  taken  for  what  they  are,  the  csigus 
of  our  ideas  only,  and  not  for  things  themselves. — Locke. 


RULE  XI.—  THE  CONJUNCTION. 


SYNTAX    OIF    ItTJLE    XI. 

Special  Rules  under  Rule  XL 

SPECIAL  RULE  I.—  Some  conjunctions  are  followed  by  corresponding 
conjunctions  ;  and  in  a  pair  of  correlative  conjunctions  tlie  antecedent 
and  subsequent  should  correspond, 
Though  requires  yet  :  as  — 

Though  deep,  yet  clear;  though  gentle,  yet  not  dull. 
TVhether  requires  or  :  as  — 

Whether  the  thing  was  green  or  blue. 

Either  requires  or  ;  as  — 
None  of  them  either  returned  his  gaze  or  seemed  to  notice  it. 

Neither  requires  nor  :  as— 
Neither  in  France  nor  in  Spain  does  this  custom  exist. 

NOTE.  —  Either  —  or  and  neither  —  wor,  strictly  speaking,  express  an  alterna- 
tive, or  choice  between  two;  and  in  modern  times  exact  writers  are 
careful  not  to  employ  these  pairs  of  correlatives  to  unite  more  thau 
two  terms. 

Both  requires  and  :  as  — 
Power  to  judge  loth  quick  and  dead. 

As  —  as  is  used  in  affirmative  comparison  :  as  — 
Mine  is  as  good  as  yours. 

So  —  as  is  used  in  negative  comparison  :  as  — 
But  his  is  not  so  good  as  either  ; 

or  to  express  a  restrictive  comparison  :  as  — 
Be  so  good  as  to  read  this  letter. 

SPECIAL  EULE  II.—  When  two  terms,  the  one  requiring  THAN  and  the 
other  AS,  are  connected,  the  terms  should  not  be  joined  in  such  a  way 
as  to  represent  the  double  relation  by  only  one  of  these  conjunctions: 
thus  — 

1.  He  was  more  beloved  but  not  so  much  admired  as  Cyntliio. 

In  this  sentence  the  two  terms  "more  beloved"  and  "so  much  ad- 
mired" are  connected,  and  the  double  correlation  of  terms  is  repre- 
sented by  the  conjunction  as.  But  a  comparative,  as  "more  beloved," 
requires  to  be  followed  by  than  (for  we  cannot  say  "  more  beloved  as 


192  SYNTAX, 

Cynthio"),  and  the  construction  in  such  cases  must  be  changed  so  as 
to  introduce  the  appropriate  conjunction.     Thus— 

He  was  more  beloved  than  Cynthio,  but  not  eo  much  admired. 

2.  I  would  do  as  much  or  more  work  than  John. 

Incorrect :  the  conjunction  than  is  made  to  represent  the  correlative 
both  of  "  as  much  "  and  of  "  more ;"  but  "  as  much  "  requires  to  be 
followed  by  the  conjunction  as.  Correct  as  follows : 

I  would  do  as  much  work  as  John,  or  more  [than  he]. 

SPECIAL  EULE  III.— Care  should  be  taken  to  employ  a  conjunction 
fitted  to  express  the  connection  intended, 

I.  That  should  be  used  in  place  of  lest,  but,  l)ut  what,  l)ut  that,  after 
expressions  implying  doubt,  fear,  or  denial:  as — 

I  do  not  doubt  that  [not  but  that  or  but  what]  he  is  honest. 

II.  After  else,  other,  rather,  and  all  comparatives,  the  latter  term  of 
comparison  should  be  introduced  by  than,  not  by  but,  besides,  or 
except:  as — 

He  no  sooner  retires  but  [should  be  than]  his  heart  burns  with  de- 
votion. 

III.  Than  is  often  improperly  used  for  a  preposition  :  as — 

1.  That  is  a  very  different  statement  than  what  [should  be  from  what] 

you  made  yesterday. 

2.  I  should  prefer  being  right  than  being  President  [should  be  to 

being]. 

NOTES  ON  PECULIAR  AND  IDIOMATIC  FORMS. 

I.  Rhetoric  of  Conjunctions.— The  omission  of  the  conjunction  fre- 
quently imparts  energy  to  the  narrative :  thus — 

Through  many  a  dark  and  dreary  vale 
They  passed,  and  many  a  region  dolorous ; 
O'er  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp, 
.Rocks,  caves,  lakes,  fens,  bogs,  dens,  and  shades  of  death — 
A  universe  of  death. — Milton. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  rhetorical  repetition  of  the  conjunction  serves 
to  emphasize  details :  thus — 

Seasons  return;  but  not  to  me  returns 
Day,  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn, 
Or  sight  of  vernal  bloom,  or  summer's  rose, 
Or  flock,  or  herds,  or  human  face  divine.—  Milton. 


RULE  XL—THE  CONJUNCTION.  193 

And — and  is  often  used  in  poetry  for  loth — and,  or — or  for  cither — or, 
and  nor — nor  for  neither — nor :  thus — • 

1.  And  trump  and  timbrel  answered  them.—  Scott. 

2.  I  whom  nor  avarice  nor  pleasures  move. — Walsh. 

II.  Than — "than  whom." — The  case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  follow- 
ing than  depends  on  the  construction  of  the  subsequent  clause  (which, 
however,  is  generally  elliptical) :  thus — 

1.  I  esteem  you  more  than  they  [esteem  you]. 

2.  I  esteem  you  more  than  them  [=than  I  esteem  them]. 

A  peculiar  construction,  than  whom,  is  exemplified  in  the  following : 

1.  Beelzebub,  than  whom, 

Satan  except,  none  higher  sat. — Milton. 

2.  Pope,  than  whom  few  men  had  more  vanity. — Johnson. 

If  we  substitute  the  personal  pronoun,  we  shall  see  that  the  nomina- 
tive case  is  required.  Thus:  "None  sat  higher  than  he;"  "had  more 
vanity  than  Tie."  This  construction  must  therefore  be  regarded  as 
anomalous ;  but  it  has  been  used  by  so  many  reputable  authors  that 
we  can  scarcely  refuse  to  accept  it.  It  is  probably  the  result  of  con- 
founding the  English  idiom  with  the  Latin  comparative  followed  by 
the  ablative  quo.  "  In  Latin  quo  means  than  who,  and  than  is  expressed 
by  the  ablative.  Classical  scholars  writing  in  English  have  supplied 
than,  and  yet,  with  the  Latin  syntax  in  their  minds,  have  retained  the 
oblique  (objective)  case."* 

EXERCISE    47. 

In  the  following  sentences  correct  the  violations  of  Rule 
XI. 

1.  Neither  despise  or  oppose  what  you  do  not  understand. 

2.  He  is  more  bold  but  not  so  wise  as  his  companion. 

3.  Will  it  be  urged  that  the  four  Gospels  are  as  old  or  even  older  than 

tradition  ? 

4.  As  far  as  I  am  able  to  judge,  the  book  is  well  written. 

5.  Sincerity  is  as  valuable,  and  even  more  so,  as  knowledge. 

*  Rushton,  Rules  and  Cautions,  p.  104.  Dr.  Priestley  seems  to  have  had  a  no- 
tion that  than  is  in  such  cases  a  preposition,  and  Mr.  Abbott  (English  Grammar, 
p.  210)  says  it  was  perhaps  regarded  as  a  quasi-preposition.  But  this  is  no  help 
in  the  explanation  of  the  construction,  which,  indeed,  is  idiomatic. 

i 


SYNTAX. 

6.  These  rules  should  be  kept  in  mind  as  aids  either  for  speaking,  compos- 

ing,  or  parsing  correctly. 

7.  No  one  gave  his  opinion  so  modestly  as  he. 

8.  I  do  not  deny  but  he  has  merit. 

9.  We  expected  something  more  besides  this. 

10.  Was  the  singing  any  different  to-night  than  usual  ? 


VIII.  ABSOLUTE  AND  INDEPENDENT  CON- 
STRUCTIONS. 

NOMINATIVE  ABSOLUTE-INDEPENDENT-INTEEJEOTION, 

Rule  XIL— i.  A  noun  or  pronoun  whose  case  depends  on  no 
other  word  is  put  in  the  nominative  absolute.  2.  The  nominative 
independent  and  the  interjection  have  no  grammatical  relation 
to  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence. 

I.  Absolute  Construction. — In  the  absolute  construction  the  noun 
or  pronoun  is  always  joined  with  a  participle,  the  two  forming 
a  phrase :  thus — 

1.  Spring  returning,  the  swallows  reappear. 

2.  They  being  unprepared^  we  began  the  attack. 

This  construction  is  called  absolute,  because  the  noun  or  pronoun 
is  loosed  or  absolved  from  grammatical  dependence  on  any 
other  words  in  the  sentence.  The  absolute  construction  in 
Anglo-Saxon  was  the  dative,*  and  we  find  this  construction  in 
authors  as  late  as  Milton :  thus — 

And  him  destroyed 

For  whom  all  this  was  made,  all  this  will  soon 
"Follow.— Paradise  Lost. 

"  Him  "  is  here  not  an  objective,  but  a  real  dative.  The  loss  of  case- 
inflections  has  led  to  the  confounding  of  the  cases,  and  modern  usage 
requires  the  nominative  case  in  this  construction. 


*  In  Latin  the  ablative,  in  Greek  the  genitive. 


RULE  XIL— NOMINATIVE  ABSOLUTE,  ETC.  1Q5 


EXERCISE    48. 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Rule  XII. 

1.  The  president  having  given  his  assent,  the  bill  became  a  law. 

2.  Those  barbarous  ages  past,  succeeded  next  the  birthday  of  invention. 

3.  Then  shall  I  be  no  more ; 

And  Adam,  wedded  to  another  Eve, 

Shall  live  with  her  enjoying;  I  [being]  extinct. 

4.  Success  being  now  hopeless,  preparations  were  made  for  retreat. 

5.  Thou  looking  on, 
Shamed  to  be  overcome  or  overreached 
Would  utmost  vigor  raise. 


II.  Independent  Construction. — Under  the  independent  construc- 
tion occur  the  following  cases : 

1.  When,  by  direct  address,  a  noun  is  put  in  the  second  person, 
and  set  off  from  the  verb  by  a  comma :  as — 

fforatius,  saith  the  consul, 
As  thou  sayest,  so  let  it  be. 

2.  When,  ly pleonasm,  it  is  introduced  abruptly  for  emphasis:  as — 

The  boy,  oh  !  where  was  he  ? 

3.  When,  ty  exclamation  (one  of  the  figures  of  rhetoric),  a  word  is 
employed  in  the  manner  of  an  interjection :  as — 

Oh  \  deep  enchanting  prelude  to  repose ! 


EXERCISE    49. 

In  the  following  sentences  apply  Kule  XII. 

1.  Awake,  my  St.  John,  leave  all  meaner  things. — Pope. 

2.  O  the  depth  of  the  riches  both  of  the  wisdom  and  knowledge  of  God. - 

Zible. 

3.  A  horse !  a  horse !  my  kingdom  for  a  horse  \-Shakspeare. 

4.  Plato,  thou  reasonest  wlL—Addison. 

5.  O  thou  that  with  surpassing  glory  crowned, 
Look'st  from  thy  sole  dominion,  like  the  God 
Of  this  new  world. 

O  sun !  to  tell  thee  how  I  hate  thy  beams.  —Milton. 

6.  The  gallant  king,  he  skirted  still 

The  margin  of  that  mighty  hill.— Scott. 


106  SYNTAX. 

The  Interjection. — The  interjection  is  to  be  parsed  as  "having  no 
grammatical  relation  to  the  other  parts  of  the  sentence." 

The  term  interjection  (inter,  between,  and  jacere,  to  cast  or  throw)  sig- 
nifies something  that  is  thrown  in  among  things  of  which  it  does  not 
naturally  form  a  constituent  part ;  that  is  to  say,  among  the  words  of  a 
sentence.  Speech  is  the  expression  of  thought,  but  an  interjection  is 
the  expression  of  feeling :  so  that  it  is  not,  strictly  speaking,  a  part  of 
speech*  Indeed,  in  place  of  being  a  part  of  a  sentence,  it  is  itself 
an  entire  though  unanalyzed  utterance  of  emotion,  and  expresses  in  its 
own  way  what  it  would  require  a  whole  sentence  to  state — provided 
this  statement  were  possible. 

Below  will  be  found  a  few  illustrations  of  the  use  of  interjections,  t 

1.  Ah  I  then  and  there  was  hurrying  to  and  fro. 

2.  Alas!  both  for  the  deed  and  for  the  cause. 

3.  Alack!  when  once  we  have  our  grace  forgot,  nothing  goes  right. 

4.  They  opened  their  mouth  wide  against  me,  and  said:  "Aha!  aha!" 

5.  Fy!  my  lord,  fy!  a  soldier,  and  afraid ! 

6.  Ha!  laugh'st  thou,  Lochiel,  my  vision  to  scorn? 

7.  "77b/  shifts  she  thus?"  King  Henry  cried. 

8.  Hush!  hark!  a  deep  sound  strikes  like  a  rising  knell. 

9.  0  Nature,  how  in  ever}7  charm  supreme ! 
10.  But  she  is  in  her  grave — and  oh 

The  difference  to  me!J 


*  "Almost  all  animals  have  some  peculiar  sound  to  explain  any  sudden 
feeling  they  experience.  The  interjection  is  such  a  sound,  as  employed  by 
man."— Morell's  Grammar. 

t  The  following  etymologies  of  a  few  common  interjections  may  be  of  in- 
terest : 

Alas!  ah  lesso=O  [me]  miserable. 

Adieu,  d  Dieu=[I  commend  you]  to  God. 

Good-bye,  God  &'  wV  ye— God  be  with  you. 

O  dear,  0  Dieu=O  God. 

Amen,  a  Hebrew  adverb  signifying  verily,  truly,  yea. 

\  The  last  two  examples  illustrate  a  distinction  which  should  be  observed 
in  writing  the  interjection  0  or  Oh.  0  is  merely  the  sign  of  the  "nominative 
independent"  (vocative),  whereas  oh  conveys  a  particular  sentiment,  as  of 
appeal,  grief,  etc. 


SYNTAX  OF  VERBS  AND   VERBALS. 


IX.  SYNTAX  OF  VERBS  AND  VERBALS. 
I  The  Infinitive. 

Eule  I. — The  infinitive  depends  upon  a  noun,  a  verb,  or 
an  adjective,  and  takes  the  same  complements  and  modifiers 
as  the  verb. 

I.  An  infinitive  may  always  be  disposed  of  by  one  of  the  XII.  Rules 
of  Syntax,  or  by  one  of  the  Special  Rules.    But  as  it  is  often 
difficult  to  determine  the  construction  of  this  verbal,  the  rule 
above  given  may  be  used  instead  of  that  which  more  directly 
applies. 

II.  To,  of  the  infinitive,  is  generally  omitted  after  the  verbs  lid, 
dare,  need,  make,  see,  hear, feel,  let,  in  the  active  voice:  as,  "Bid 
him  go ;"  "I  hear  thee  speak  of  the  better  land;"  "I  dare  do 
all  that  may  become  a  man." 

III.  The  infinitive  is  sometimes  absolute :   as,  "  To  tell  you  the 
truth,  I  do  not  like  him ; "  "  Marley  was  dead,  to  legin  with." 

II.  The  Gerund. 

Eule  II, — The  gerund  has  the  construction  of  the  noun 
with  the  complements  and  modifications  of  the  verb. 

I.  The  noun  construction  of  the  gerund  is  exemplified  in  its  use  as 
subject  or  object  of  a  verb,  in  its  dependence  on  a  preposition, 
and  in  its  taking  a  possessive :  as — 

1.  Reading  is  profitable. 

2.  Bees  are  skilful  in  building. 

3.  His  [or  John's]  making  money  is  no  proof  of  merit. 

II.  The  verb  construction  of  the  gerund  is  exemplified  in  the  fact 
that  it  may  take  an  object  or  other  complement,  and  may  re- 
ceive an  adverbial  modifier :  as — 

1.  Bees  are  skilful  in  building  their  hives. 

2.  On  growing  old,  he  became  avaricious. 

3.  Reading  daily  is  profitable. 


198  SYNTAX. 

HI  The  Participle. 

Eule  III. — The  participle  has  the  construction  of  the  ad- 
jective, with  the  complement  and  modifications  of  the  verb  : 

as — 

1.  What  man,  seeing  this,  does  not  blush  ? 

The  participle  "  seeing"  has  here  the  construction  of  the  adjective 
(it  modifies  "man"),  while  it  takes  as  object  "this,"  a  pronoun 
in  the  objective  case. 

2.  Verse,  in  the  finest  mould  of  fancy  cast, 
Was  lumber  in  an  age  so  void  of  taste. 

The  participle  "cast,"  as  an  adjective, modifies  the  noun  "  verse,*' 
and  is  modified  by  the  phrase  "  in  the  finest  mould  of  fancy." 

NOTE. — In  such  sentences  as,  uHe  was  wonderfully  active,  considering  his 
age;"  "Granting  what  you  say,  does  it  answer  any  argument?"— sentences 
in  which  the  adjective  relation  is  not  apparent— the  participle  may  be  said  to 
be  used  independently,  or  absolutely. 

IV,  Subjunctive  Mood. 

Eule  IV. — The  subjunctive  mood  is  used  in  a  subordi- 
nate proposition  when  both  contingency  and  futurity  are 
expressed,  or  when  the  contrary  fact  is  implied :  as — 

1.  If  he  continue  to  study,  he  will  improve. 

2.  If  he  iceiv  guilty  [as  he  is  not],  he  would  suffer. 

I.  But  when  a  condition  is  assumed  as  real  the  statement  is  made 
by  means  of  the  indicative :  as — 

1.  If  he  has  money  [as  it  is  assumed  he  has],  he  keeps  it. 

2.  If  he  is  guilty  [as  he  probably  is],  he  will  suffer. 

II.  A  good  practical  rule  with  respect  to  the  use  of  the  subjunc- 
tive is  that  it  is  to  be  employed  whenever  a  potential  or  a  future 
auxiliary  is  implied :  thus — 

1.  Though  he  [may]  slay  me,  I  will  trust  in  him. 

2.  Go  thy  way  lest  a  worse  fate  [should]  befall  thee. 

3.  If  it  were  [should  be]  done,  when  'tis  done,  then  'twere  [would  be]  well 
It  were  [should  be]  done  quickly. 


SYNTAX  OF  VERBS  AND   VERBALS.  199 

III.  The  choice  between  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive  mood 
has  long  been  a  matter  of  considerable  difficulty.  The  tendency 
of  modern  usage  is  to  disregard  the  niceties  discovered  or  im- 
agined by  grammarians  regarding  the  employment  of  the  sub- 
junctive, and  it  is  probable  that  this  form  will  in  time  disap- 
pear from  our  language. 

V,  "Shall"  and  "Will," 

Kule  V, — The  correct  use  of  the  auxiliaries  shall  and  will 
depends  fundamentally  upon  the  following  principle : 

WILL  expresses  the  will  or  pleasure  of  its  own  SUBJECT  ; 
SHALL  subordinates  the  will  of  its  subject  to  that  of  the 

SPEAKER. 

I.  Usage,  however,  has  modified  the  application  of  this  principle 
as  follows : 

1.  In  the  first  person — where  the  subject  is  also  the  speaker — will 
is  used  to  express  determination ;  shall,  to  express  simple  fu- 
turity. 

2.  In  the  second  and  third  persons,  the  speaker  asserts  his  will 
when  he  uses  shall,  and  waives  his  will  when  he  uses  will:  as, 
"  You  (or  he)  shall  "—it  is  my  will  that  you  (or  he)  shall :  "  You 
(or  he)  will"  leaves  it  to  your  (or  his)  will ;  or  simply  indicates 
futurity. 

3.  Shall  is  also  used  when  the  event  is  beyond  the  control  both 
of  subject  and  of  speaker :  as — 

The  Lord  will  come ;  the  earth  shall  quake. 

4.  In  questions,  when  the  "will"  of  the  person  interrogated  is 
appealed  to,  will  can  be  used  properly  in  the  second  person 
only :  thus,  "  ShaU  I  (he)  ?"=Is  it  your  will  that  I  (lie)  shall? 
"  Witt  you  ?"=Is  it  your  will  ? 

5.  When  the  opinion  merely  of  the  person  addressed  is  asked, 
will  may  be  used  in  the  first  and  third  persons,  and  shall  in  the 
second ;  thus,  "  Which  will  I  (he)  choose  ?"  =  Which  do  you 
think  I  intend  (he  intends)  to  choose  ?    "  Shall  you  be  elected  ?" 
:=Do  you  think  that  you  shall  be  elected  ? 


200  SYNTAX. 

II.  The  same  rules  apply  to  should  and  would  both  in  the  con- 
ditional and  in  the  subjunctive  mood.* 

NOTE. — It  is  almost  impossible  to  reduce  to  rules  the  niceties  of  usage  in 
shall  and  will,  should  and  would;  and  in  fact  the  fewer  rules  on  this  subject  the 
better,  since  those  to  whom  English  is  the  mother-tongue,  and  who  have  not 
been  corrupted  by  provincialisms,  acquire  an  instinct  that  is  the  best  guide  in 
the  employment  of  these  subtle  auxiliaries,  f 

YI,  Use  of  Tense-Perms. 

Eule  VI • — The  following  principles  regarding  the  use  of 
tenses  are  to  be  carefully  observed : 

I.  When  a  verb,  taking  an  infinitive  as  complement,  refers  to  a 
future  act  or  circumstance,  the  present,  not  the  perfect,  infinitive 

should  be  used :  thus — 

1.  I  intended  to  write  you  last  week  [not  to  have  written  you]. 

2.  I  expected  to  go  to  Europe  [not  to  have  gone}. 

Though  the  verbs  "intended"  and  "expected"  are  in  the  past 
tense,  yet  the  reference  is  to  a  future  time  as  regards  what  was  in- 
tended and  expected. 

II.  But  when  a  verb,  taking  an  infinitive  as  complement,  refers  to 
a  past  act  or  circumstance,  the  perfect,  not  the  present,  infinitive 
should  be  used :  thus — 

He  appeared  to  have  seen  better  days. 

III.  When  two  or  more  compound  tenses  of  the  same  verb  are 
connected,  such  parts  of  the  tense-forms  as  are  not  common  to 
all  must  be  inserted :  thus — 

This  elucidation  may  serve  for  almost  any  book  that  has,  is,  or  shall 
be  published. — Bolingbroke. 

"  Published,"  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  publish,  is  correctly 
used  with  "shall  be;"  its  ellipsis  with  "is"  is  proper;  but  the 
ellipsis  with  "  has  "  is  improper,  because  the  writer  intended  to  say 
has  leen  published,  using  the  present  perfect  tense,  passive  voice. 

IV.  The  past  tense  should  not  be  employed  in  forming  the  com- 
pound tenses,  nor  should  the  past  participle  be  used  for  the 
past  tense.     Thus:  say,  "to  have  gone" — not  "to  have  went;" 
"  I  did  it  "—not  "  I  done  it." 

*  Dalgleish :  English  Grammar. 

t  Sir  Edmund  Head  has  devoted  to  this  subject  an  entire  volume,  entitled 
"Shall"  and  "Will." 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXAMPLES.  201 

MISCELLANEOUS  EXAMPLES 

OF  IMPROPRIETIES  IN   SYNTAX  FOR  CORRECTION. 

I. 

1.  This  exercise  is  very  easy  done. 

2.  How  many  square  feet  is  there  in  a  floor  twenty  feet  long  and  sixteen 

feet  wide  ? 

3.  In  France  cheap  wood  is  made  to  perfectly  imitate  mahogany. 

4.  The  great  historian  and  the  essayist  is  no  more. 

5.  It  could  not  have  been  her. 

6.  Did  you  see  the  man  and  the  dog  which  passed  this  way  ? 

7.  I  intend  to  immediately  retire  from  business. 

8.  I  think  I  will  return  home  next  week. 

9.  The  death  was  announced  lately  of  the  great  statesman. 

10.  Who  are  you  looking  for  ? 

11.  The  collection  of  books  that  have  come  down  to  us  from  that  period 

are  very  valuable. 

12.  I  expected  to  have  been  at  home  when  you  called. 

13.  It  was  him  and  me  that  were  chosen  to  go. 

14.  When  will  we  three  meet  again  ? 

15.  He  not  only  ought,  but  must  succeed. 

16.  I  never  saw  it  rain  so  heavy  before. 

17.  His  work  is  one.  of  the  best  that  has  ever  appeared. 

18.  It  has  been  said  that  politics  are  but  little  more  than  common-sense. 

19.  Metal  types  were  now  introduced,  which  before  this  time  had  been  made 

of  wood. 

20.  No  man  ever  bestowed  such  a  gift  to  his  kind. 

II. 

1.  Each  strives  to  get  ahead  of  the  other  in  their  own  little  craft. 

2.  Her  father  and  her  rode  about  the  country. 

3.  I  would  like  to  know  whose  hat  this  is. 

4.  Of  what  gender  are  each  of  the  following  nouns? 

5.  He  now  began  his  work  in  earnest. 

6.  One  of  the  greatest  evils  which  now  oppresses  France  is  the  want  of  a 

high  moral  tone  among  her  people. 

7.  If  he  plunge  into  the  sea,  he  feels  the  law  that  defies  the  boundaries  of 

his  perfect  liberty. 

8.  I  meant  to  have  written  to  you  last  Friday. 

9.  Who  did  you  say  you  met  this  morning? 

10.  They  have  neither  occasion  for  beauty,  money,  or  good  conduct. 

11.  This  is  one  of  the  most  memorable  battles  that  ever  have  or  will  be 

fought. 

12.  I  trust  you  shall  overlook  the  circumstance  of  me  having  come  to  school 

late. 

12 


202  SYNTAX. 

13.  What  is  the  difference  between  an  adjective  and  participle  ? 

14.  These  flowers  smell  very  sweetly  and  look  beautifully. 

15.  Have  you  no  other  book  but  this  ? 

16.  He  is  only  fitted  to  govern  others  who  can  govern  himself. 

17.  The  spirit,  and  not  the  letter,  of  the  law  are  what  we  ought  to  follow. 

18.  The  man  could  neither  read  or  write. 

19.  The  Book  of  Psalms  were  written  by  David. 

20.  That  building  must  be  either  a  church  or  school. 

III. 

1.  The  two  are  here  compared  with  one  another. 

2.  It  has  taken  man  thousands  of  years  to  in  part  discover  the  laws  of 

nature. 

3.  This  we  will  have  occasion  to  see  illustrated  hereafter. 

4.  Mary,  for  all  her  anxious  words,  was  not  so  sure  as  me. 

5.  The  past  has  now  began  to  renew  its  quaint  existence. 

6.  Our  words  would  look  very  oddly  to  us  in  a  phonetic  dress. 

7.  Such  a  club  has  other  merits  besides  those  that  are  intellectual. 

8.  I  can  read  as  well  as  her,  but  she  sings  better  than  me. 

9.  This  incident,  though  it  appears  improbable,  yet  I  cannot  doubt  the 

author's  veracity. 

10.  I  had  the  physician,  the  surgeon,  and  the  apothecary's  assistance. 

11.  It  was  Peter  the  Hermit,  him  that  incited  the  crusade. 

12.  Here  come  my  old  friend  and  teacher. 

13.  The  minute  finger  and  the  hour  hand  has  each  its  particular  use. 

14.  Which  of  that  group  of  men  is  the  taller? 

15.  What  boy  amongst  us  can  foretell  their  future  career  ? 

16.  An  account  of  the  great  events  in  all  parts  of  the  world  are  given  in  the 

daily  papers. 

17.  If  I  were  in  his  position,  I  would  not  have  gone. 

18.  They  would  neither  eat  themselves  nor  suffer  nobody  else  to  eat. 

19.  Did  you  expect  to  have  heard  so  poor  a  speech  ? 

20.  I  cannot  give  you  no  more  money. 

IV. 

1.  We  did  no  more  but  what  we  ought  to. 

2.  We  have  done  no  more  than  it  was  our  duty  to  have  done. 

3.  He  is  a  man  of  remarkable  clear  intellect. 

4.  He  showed  me  two  kinds,  but  I  did  not  buy  any  of  them. 

5.  Every  one  is  the  best  judge  of  their  own  conscience. 

6.  They  told  me  of  him  having  failed. 

7.  He  has  already,  and  will  continue  to  receive  many  honors. 

8.  One  species  of  bread  of  coarse  quality  was  only  allowed  to  be  baked. 

9.  The  party  whom  he  invited  was  very  numerous. 

10.  The  doctor  said  in  his  lecture  that  fever  always  produced  thirst. 

11.  The  Annals  of  Florence  are  a  most  imposing  work. 


MISCELLANEOUS  EXAMPLES.  203 

12.  Such  expressions  sound  harshly. 

13.  What  can  be  the  cause  of  the  Parliament  neglecting  so  important  a 

business? 

14.  Either  you  or  I  are  in  the  way. 

15.  He  would  not  be  persuaded  but  what  I  was  greatly  in  fault. 

16.  I  do  not  think  that  leisure  of  life  and  tranquillity  of  mind,  which  fortune 

and  your  own  wisdom  has  given  you,  could  be  better  employed. 

17.  The  fact  of  me  being  a  stranger  to  him  does  not  justify  his  conduct. 

18.  Let  me  awake  the  King  of  Morven,  he  that  is  like  the  sun  of  heaven 

rising  in  a  storm. 

19.  The  nation  was  ruined  by  the  profligacy  of  their  nobles. 

20.  Ruth  and  I,  and  you  too,  must  answer  for  yourselves. 

V. 

1.  Either  the  young  man  or  his  guardian  have  acted  improperly. 

2.  The  following  treatise,  together  with  those  that  accompany  it,  were 

written  many  years  ago. 

3.  A  talent  of  this  kind  would  prove  the  likeliest  of  any  other  to  succeed. 

4.  On  your  conduct  at  this  moment  depends  the  color  and  complexion  of 

their  destiny. 

5.  That  is  either  a  man  or  a  woman's  voice. 

6.  Man,  though  he  has  great  variety  of  thoughts,  yet  they  are  all  within 

his  own  breast. 

7.  The  ebb  and  flow  of  the  tides  were  explained  by  Newton. 

8.  And  indeed  in  some  cases  we  derive  as  much  or  more  pleasure  from  that 

source  than  from  anything  else. 

9.  The  number  of  inhabitants  were  not  more  than  four  millions. 

10.  The  logical  and  historical  analysis  of  a  language  generally  in  some  de- 

gree coincides. 

11.  But  she  fell  a-laughing  like  one  out  of  their  right  mind. 

12.  Verse  and  prose  run  into  one  another  like  light  and  shade. 

13.  Homer  had  the  greatest  invention  of  any  writer  whatever. 

14.  Of  all  the  other  qualities  of  style,  clearness  is  the  most  important. 

15.  Gold  is  heavier  and  more  valuable  than  any  metal. 

16.  In  him  were  happily  blended  true  dignity  with  softness  of  manners. 

17.  The  saint,  the  father,  and  the  husband  pray. 

18.  These  verses  were  written  by  a  young  man  who  has  long  lain  in  his 

grave,  for  his  own  amusement. 

19.  The  Atlantic  Ocean  separates  the  eastern  and  western  continent. 

20.  A  second  deluge  learning  thus  overrun, 

And  the  monks  finished  what  the  Goths  begun. 


SECTION  III. 

ANALYSIS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

DEFINITIONS   AND   PRINCIPLES. 
I.  THE    SENTENCE   AND    ITS   ELEMENTS. 

202,  Analysis  is  the  separation  of  a  sentence  into  its 
constituent  elements. 

For  the  distinction  between  analysis  and  syntax,  and  for  the  view 
that  both  form  parts  of  the  Doctrine  of  the  Sentence,  seep.  139. 

203 1  A  sentence  is  a  combination  of  words  expressing  a 
complete  thought :  thus — 

1.  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man. 

2.  I  hear  thee  speak  of  the  better  land. 

I.  A  sentence  is  informal  statement  of  a  thought.    An  interjec- 
tion may,  in  substance,  express  a  thought,  but  it  does  not  do  so 
inform,  and  hence  it  does  not  constitute  a  sentence. 

II.  By  "  expressing  a  complete  thought "  is  meant  that — (1)  some- 
thing is  said,  (2)  about  sometJiing. 

204,  The  elements   of  a   sentence   are   its   constituent 
parts.      They  may  be  considered  with  reference  to  their 
rank,  their  structure,  and  their  office. 

I.  By  Bank. 

205.  With  reference  to  rank,  the  elements  of  a  sentence 
are  classed  as — I.  PRINCIPAL  ELEMENTS.     II.  SUBORDINATE 

ELEMENTS.       III.  INDEPENDENT. 


THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  ELEMENTS.  205 

206.  Principal  or  essential  elements  are  the  words  nec- 
essary for  the  expression  of  a  thought. 

207.  Subordinate  elements   are  words  joined  with   the 
principal  elements  for  the  purpose  of  expressing  some  mod- 
ification of  the  thought. 

208.  The  principal  elements  of  a  sentence  are:  I.  THE 

SUBJECT.      II.    THE   PREDICATE. 

209.  The  subject  represents  that  of  which  something  is 
stated. 

210.  The  predicate  tells  what  is  stated  of  the  subject: 
thus — 


BUIUKOT. 

I'BEDIOATB. 

1.  Birds 
2.  Some  birds 
3.  Some  birds 
4.  Some  birds  of  this  country 

sing 
sing 
sing  sweetly 
sing  sweetly  during  the  day 

211,  Adjuncts, — The  subordinate  elements  of  a  sentence 
are  called  adjuncts,  or  modifiers. 

I.  When  adjuncts  are  added  to  a  subject  or  to  a  predicate,  the  sub- 
ject or  the  predicate  is  said  to  be  modified  or  enlarged;  and 
the  terms  modification  or  enlargement  of  the  subject  or  of  the 
predicate  may  be  used  as  synonymous  with  adjunct,  or  modifier, 
of  the  subject,  etc. 

II.  "  Some"  in  2  and  3  above,  and  "  some"  and  "  of  this  country" 
in  4,  are  adjuncts,  or  modifiers,  or  enlargements,  of  the  subject. 
"  Sweetly"  in  3,  and  "  sweetly"  and  "  during  the  day"  in  4,  are 
adjuncts,  etc.,  of  the  predicate. 

212,  The  simple  or  grammatical  subject  is  the  subject 
without  adjuncts  :  as,  "  Birds  fly  swiftly." 


206  ANALYSIS. 

213,  The  complete  or  logical  subject  is  the  subject  with 
its  adjuncts :  as,  "  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man." 


LOGICAL  SUBJECT. 

LOGICAL  PREDICATE. 

Grammatical  Subject. 

Adjuncts  of  Subject. 

study 

The 

is  man. 

proper 
of  mankind 

214,  The  simple  or  grammatical  predicate  is  the  verb- 
word  or  verb-phrase  used  in  making  the  assertion  :  as — 

1.  Birds  fly. 

2.  Birds  may  have  flown. 

215,  The  complete  or  logical  predicate  is  the  predicate- 
verb  with  all  that  is  attached  to  it — complement  or  adjuncts, 
or  ~both :  thus — 

LOGICAL   PREDICATE. 

I   [simple  pred.]  [adjunct]  [complement]  [adjunct] 

Night  STRETCHES  (1)  forth  (2)  her  sceptre  (3)  o'er  a  prostrate  world. 

The  important  distinction  between  the  complement  of  a  predicate 
(which,  in  the  case  of  all  incomplete  verbs,  is  essential  to  predi- 
cation) and  a  mere  modifier  should  be  carefully  noted.  In  this 
view  it  may  be  convenient  to  employ  the  term  complex  predicate 
to  designate  the  predicate-verb  together  with  the  complement, 
and  logical  predicate  to  designate  the  verb  with  its  complement 
and  modifiers. 

216,  Independent  Elements,— Independent  elements  are 
words  or  phrases  not  related  to  the  other  parts  of  the  sen- 
tence; that  is,  they  are  neither  principal  nor  subordinate 
elements :  as — 

1.  To  say  the  least,  it  was  very  surprising. 

2.  Mary,  your  lilies  are  in  bloom. 

3.  Well,  it  is  now  too  late. 


THE  SENTENCE  AND  ITS  ELEMENTS.  207 

Connectives  are  conjunctions,  relative  pronouns,  and  conjunctive 
adverbs. 

II.  By  Structure. 

217,  "With  reference  to  their  structure  the  elements  of 
a  sentence  are  classified  as :  I.  WOKDS.     II.  PIIKASES.    III. 
PROPOSITIONS  (including  clauses). 

218,  A  phrase  is  a  combination  of  related  words  forming 
an  element  of  a  sentence,  and  equivalent  to  a  noun,  an 
adjective,  or  an  adverb. 

A  phrase  may  be  introduced  by — 

1.  A  preposition,  thus  forming  a  prepositional  phrase :  as — 

1.  Darius  retreated  into  Persia. 

2.  The  fruit  of  that  forbidden  tree. 

2.  An  infinitive,  thus  forming  an  infinitive  phrase  :  as— 
To  love  our  neighbors  as  ourselves  is  a  divine  command. 

3.  A  participle,  thus  forming  a  participial  phrase :  as — 

1.  Having  crossed  the  Ritbicon,  CaBsar's  army  advanced  on  Rome. 

2.  Children,  coming  home  from  school,  look  in  at  the  open  door. 

219,  A  proposition  is  the  combination  of  a  subject  with  a 
predicate,  forming  either  an  independent  or  a  dependent 
statement :  thus — 

1.  Life  is  but  an  empty  dream. 

2.  Tell  me  not  that  life  is  ~but  an  empty  dream. 

A  proposition  forming  an  independent,  or  principal,  statement  is 
a  simple  sentence. 

220,  A  clause  is  a  dependent,  or  subordinate,  proposition, 
introduced  by  a  connective  :  thus — 

1.  Whilst  light  and  colors  rise  and  fly, 

2.  Lives  Newton's  deathless  memory. 


208  ANALYSIS. 

From  the  definitions  of  a  proposition  and  of  a  clause,  it  will  be 
inferred  that  while  a  sentence  is  always  a  proposition,  a  prop- 
osition is  not  necessarily  always  a  sentence:  for  a  clause  or 
dependent  proposition  is  not  a  sentence,  but  an  element  of  a 
sentence. 

221,  A  word  is  termed  an  element  of  the  first  degree; 
a  phrase,  an  element  of  the  second  degree  ;  and  a  clause,  an 
element  of  the  third  degree. 

III.  By  Office. 

222,  — With  reference  to  their  office,  the  elements  of 
a  sentence  are  classified  as:  I.  SUBSTANTIVE.    II.  ADJEC- 
TIVE.    III.  ADVERBIAL. 

223,  A  substantive  word,  phrase,  or  clause  is  a  word, 
phrase,  or  clause  used  as  a  noun;  an  adjective  word, phrase, 
or  clause  is  one  used  as  an  adjective ;  an  adverbial  word, 
phrase,  or  clause  is  one  used  as  an  adverb. 

If  the  element  is  a  word,  its  classification  as  a  part  of  speech 
determines  its  office ;  if  a  phrase  or  clause,  the  test  is :  What 
part  of  speech  would  this  be  if  the  idea  were  expressed  by  a 
single  word  ? 


SUMMARY. 

("Principal, 
The  elements  classed  by  rank  are <  Subordinate, 

(independent. 

(Words, 
The  elements  classed  by  structure  are...  |  Phrases, 

(Propositions. 

(  Substantive, 
The  elements  classed  by  office  are .j  Adjective, 

(Adverbial. 


CLASSES   OF  SENTENCES.  Q09 


EXERCISE    50. 
A. 

In  the  following  sentences  select  the  grammatical  and 
the  logical  subjects,  and  the  grammatical  and  the  logical 
predicates. 

1.  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  forever. 

2.  Chaucer,  the  father  of  English  poetry,  wrote  the  Canterbury  Tales. 

3.  Brave  soldiers  fell  at  Thermopylae. 

4.  Tennyson  wrote  the  Idylls  of  the  King. 

5.  Nothing  in  his  life  became  him  like  the  leaving  it. 

6.  All  the  land,  in  flowery  squares,  beneath  a  broad  and  equal-blowing 

wind,  smelt  of  the  coming  summer. 

7.  The  morn,  in  russet  mantle  clad, 

Walks  o'er  the  dew  of  yon  high  eastern  hill. 

8.  Short-lived  likings  may  be  bred 
By  a  glance  from  fickle  eyes. 

9.  Under  her  torn  hat  glowed  the  wealth 
Of  simple  beauty  and  rustic  health. 

10.  Night,  sable  goddess,  from  her  ebon  throne, 
In  rayless  majesty  now  stretches  forth 
Her  leaden  sceptre  o'er  a  prostrate  world. 

B. 

In  the  following  distinguish  phrases  and  clauses  from  sen- 
tences. 

1.  To  die  is  gain.  2.  Not  to  know  me.  3.  The  design  has  never  been  com- 
pleted. 4.  A  design  which  has  never  been  completed.  5.  Sailing  to  Europe  in 
a  steamer.  6.  The  morn,  in  russet  mantle  clad.  7.  From  bad  to  worse.  8.  Snow- 
drifts. 9.  When  morning  showed  the  snow-drifts.  10.  For  conscience'  sake. 
11.  Alas !  poor  Yorick.  12.  When  I  knew  him,  Horatio.  13.  Remote  from 
towns.  14.  Go.  15.  Gone  from  our  gaze.  16.  Does  it  matter?  17.  No.  18.  Into 
the  jaws  of  death.  19.  Rode  the  Three  Hundred.  20.  Perish  the  thought ! 


II.  CLASSES    OF    SENTENCES. 

224,  How  Classified, — Sentences  are  classified  (1)  accord- 
ing to  their  use;  (2)  according  to  their  structure. 


210  ANALYSIS. 

I.  By  Use. 

225,  According  to  their  use,  sentences  are  divided  into 
four   classes:    I.  DECLARATIVE.     II.  INTERROGATIVE.     III. 
IMPERATIVE.     IY.  EXCLAMATIVE  (or  Exclamatory). 

226.  A  declarative  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  an  as- 
sertion (that  is,  an  affirmation  or  a  negation) :  as— 

1.  Man  is  mortal. 

2.  Into  the  jaws  of  death  rode  the  Three  Hundred. 

3.  If  it  were  so,  it  were  a  grievous  fault. 

227,  An  interrogative  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a 
question:  as — 

1.  Is  man  mortal  ? 

2.  Did  the  Three  Hundred  ride  into  the  jaws  of  death  ? 

228.  An  imperative  sentence  is  one  that  expresses  a  com- 
mand  or  an  entreaty :  as — 

1.  Come  when  the  heart  beats  high  and  warm. 

2.  Put  money  in  thy  purse. 

2 29 •  An  exclamative  (or  exclamatory)  sentence  is  one 
that  expresses  a  thought  in  an  inter jectional  manner :  as — 
Oh  !  that  this  too,  too  solid  flesh  would  melt ! 

The  following  passage  from  a  well-known  speech  of  Patrick  Henry 
affords  an  admirable  illustration  of  the  several  kinds  of  sentence  as 
classified  by  use : 

"  They  tell  us,  sir,  that  we  are  weak — unable  to  cope  with  so  for- 
midable an  adversary.  But  when  shall  we  be  stronger?  Will 
it  be  the  next  week,  or  the  next  year?  Shall  we  gather  strength 
by  irresolution  and  inaction  ?  Sir,  we  are  not  weak,  if  we  make 
a  proper  use  of  those  means  which  the  God  of  nature  hath 
placed  in  our  power.  The  battle,  sir,  is  not  to  the  strong  alone  : 
it  is  to  the  vigilant,  the  active,  the  brave.  If  we  were  base 
enough  to  desire  it,  it  is  now  too  late  to  retire  from  the  contest. 
The  war  is  inevitable — and  let  it  come.  Our  brethren  are  al- 
ready in  the  field.  Why  stand  we  here  idle  ?  Is  life  so  dear. 


CLASSES  OF  SENTENCES.  211 

or  peace  so  sweet,  as  to  be  purchased  at  the  price  of  chains  and 
slavery  ?  Forbid  it,  Almighty  God !  I  know  not  what  course 
others  may  take ;  but  as  for  me,  give  me  liberty,  or  give  me 
death !" 

II.  By  Structure. 

230 1  According  to  their  structure  sentences  are  classified 
as  :  I.  SIMPLE.     II.  COMPLEX.     III.  COMPOUND. 

231,  A  simple  sentence  consists  of  one  independent  prop- 
osition. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  a  simple  sentence  necessarily  con- 
sists of  only  a  few  words.  No  matter  how  many  modifications 
of  the  subject,  or  of  the  predicate,  or  of  both,  there  may  be,  if 
a  sentence  contains  but  one  subject  and  one  predicate,  it  is  a 
simple  sentence.  "Birds  fly"  is  a  simple  sentence  containing 
two  words.  The  following  is  also  a  simple  sentence,  though 
containing  sixty-one  words: 

"About  fourscore  years  ago  there  used  to  be  seen  sauntering  on  the 
pleasant  terraces  of  Sans  Souci,  for  a  short  time  in  the  after- 
noon, or  driving  in  a  rapid,  business  manner  on  the  open  roads, 
or  through  the  scraggy  woods  and  avenues  of  that  intricate, 
amphibious  Potsdam  region,  a  highly  interesting,  lean,  little  old 
man,  of  alert,  though  slightly  stooping  figure."  * 

232,  A  complex  sentence  consists  of  one  independent  (or 
principal)  proposition  and  one  or  more  clauses ;  thus— - 

1.  When  morning  dawned  [clause]   ALL  FEARS  WERE  DISPELLED 
[principal  proposition]. 

2.  WE  KNOW  NOT  [principal  proposition]  whence  it  comes  [clause] 
or  whither  it  goes  [clause]. 

233,  A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  inde- 
pendent propositions :  thus — • 

[All  fears  were  dispelled],  AND  [we  saw  the  land  within  a  few 

leagues  of  us]. 
In  compound  sentences  the  members  are  merely  put  together  (con 

and  ponere),  while  in  complex  sentences  they  are  woven  together 

(con  and  plectere). 

*  Carlyle :  Frederick  the  Great. 


212  ANALYSIS. 

III.   SUBJECT   AND   PREDICATE. 

234,  The  subject  of  a  sentence  is  always  a  noun  or  one 
of  its  equivalents. 

The  equivalents  of  a  noun  are— 

1.  A  pronoun:  as — 
She  is  all  the  world  to  me. 

2.  An  adjective  used  substantively  :  as — 
The  weary  are  at  rest. 

3.  An  infinitive  or  a  gerund :  as — 

1.  To  le  contents  his  natural  desire. 

2.  Seeing  is  believing. 

4.  A  substantive  phrase :  as — 

1.  Not  to  know  me  argues  yourself  unknown. 

2.  Learning  a  language  icell  is  difficult. 

5.  A  substantive  clause:  as — 

That  the  earth  is  spherical  was  not  known  by  the  Greeks. 

235,  The  predicate  consists  of  a  predicate  verb  (word  or 
words);  but  in  order  to  make  a  significant  statement  it  is 
often  necessary  to  employ  a  complement. 

236,  Complements, — Transitive  verbs  require  an  object 
as  complement :  as — 

Columbus  discovered  [pred.  verb]  America  [object]. 

The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  may  be  any  of  the  equivalents 
of  the  noun :  thus — 

1.  We  commend  her. 

2.  Men  honor  the  brave. 

3.  Boys  like  to  skate. 

4.  They  stopped  reciting  their  lessons. 

5.  Talleyrand  said  that  the  purpose  of  language  is  to  conceal  thought. 


ADJUNCTS  OF  TEE  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.         213 

237,  Incomplete  intransitive  and  passive  verbs  may  take 
as  a  complement  a  predicate  nominative  or  a  predicate 
adjective:  as — 

1.  Knowledge  is  power. 

2.  The  mountains  arc  high. 

3.  She  seems  better. 

4.  Socrates  was  thought  wise. 

The  complement  of  an  intransitive  or  a  passive  verb  may  be  one 
of  the  equivalents  of  the  noun  or  of  the  adjective :  thus — 

1.  His  intention  was  to  go. 

2.  The  probability  is  that  he  has  gone  to  Europe. 

3.  That  book  seems  of  little  value. 

238,  Certain  transitive  verbs  (see  Syntax,  p.  168),  take  a 
double  object,  one  direct  and  the  other  attributive  ;  or  they 
may  take,  in  addition  to  the  direct  object,  an  adjective  com- 
plement modifying  the  object :  as — 

1.  We  call  the  J)oy  John. 

2.  "We  hold  the  man  accountable. 


IV.  ADJUNCTS  OF  THE   SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE. 

239,  Of  the  Subject, — Since  the  subject  is  always  a  noun 
or  its  equivalent,  and  since  whatever  words  modify  a  noun 
are  adjective  in  office,  the  adjuncts  of  the  subject  must  be 
adjective  elements. 

240,  An  adjunct  of  the  subject  may  be  an  adjective  ele- 
ment of  the  first,  the  second,  or  the  third  degree :  that  is,  it 
may  be  an  adjective  word,  phrase,  or  clause. 

I.  As  a  word  an  adjective  element  may  be — 

1.  An  adjective :  as- — 

Kind  hearts  are  more  than  coronets. 


214-  ANALYSIS. 

2.  An  appositive  noun :  as — 

Newton,  the  philosopher,  discovered  the  law  of  gravitation. 

3.  A  possessive  noun :  as — 

Children's  voices  should  be  dear  to  a  mother's  ear. 

II.  An  adjective  phrase  may  be  in  form  prepositional  or 
participial:  thus — 

1.  The  thirst  for  fame  is  an  infirmity  of  noble  minds. 

2.  The  man,  being  injured  by  the  fall,  was  taken  to  the  hospital. 

III.  An  adjective  clause  is  always  introduced  by  a  rela- 
tive pronoun  or  a  relative  adverb :  thus — 

The  man  that  hath  no  music  in  himself  is  fit  for  stratagems. 
The  place  where  Moses  was  buried  is  unknown. 

241,  The  subject  may  be  modified  not  only  by  one,  but 
by  any  combination  or  number  of  combinations  of  adjective 
elements:  thus— 

Born  to  inherit  the  most  illustrious  monarchy  that  the  world  ever  saw, 
and  early  united  to  the  object  of  Tier  choice,  the  amiable  PRINCESS, 
liappy  in  herself,  and  joyful  in  lier  future  prospects,  little  antici- 
pated the  fate  which  was  so  soon  to  overtake  her. 

242,  Adjective  elements  are  used  to  modify  not  only  the 
subject,  but  a  noun  in  any  part  of  a  sentence. 

If  the  subject  is  an  infinitive  or  a  gerund,  it  may  in  its  fl6r&-charac- 
ter  take  a  complement  or  adverbial  adjuncts,  or  both :  as — 

1.  To  love  one's  enemies  is  a  Christian  duty. 

2.  Playing  with  fire  is  dangerous. 

243,  Of  the  Predicate,— The  predicate  verb  is  modified 
by  adverbial  elements. 

244,  An  adverbial  element  may  be  an  element  of  the 
first,  second,  or  third  degree. 


ADJUNCTS  OF  THE  SUBJECT  AND  PREDICATE.       215 
I.  As  a  word,  an  adverbial  clement  may  be — 

1.  An  adverb :  as — 
Leonidas  died  bravely. 

2.  An  indirect  object :  as — 

1.  Give  the  man  a  seat. 

2.  Give  him'd  seat. 

3.  An  objective  adverbial:  as — 

1.  Our  friends  have  returned  home. 

2.  The  book  cost  three  dollars. 

4.  An  infinitive  of  purpose :  as — 
She  stoops  to  conquer. 

II.  An  adverbial  phrase  may  be  in  form  prepositional  or 
participial:  thus — 

1.  Leonidas  died  with  great  "bravery. 

2.  He  reads  standing  at  his  desk. 

III.  An  adverbial  clause  is  always  introduced  by  a  con- 
junctive adverb  or  a  subordinate  conjunction :  thus — 

1.  The  lawyers  smiled  that  afternoon 
When  he  hummed  in  court  an  old  love-tune. 

2.  Fishes  have  no  voice  because  they  have  no  lungs. 

245.  The  predicate  verb  may  be  modified  by  any  com- 
bination or  number  of  combinations  of  adverbial  elements ; 
and  an  adverbial  element  may  serve  as  an  adjunct,  not  only 
of  a  verb,  but  of  an  adjective  or  an  adverb. 

From  what  has  been  stated,  it  will  be  correctly  inferred  that  a 
noun  complement  may  receive  any  of  the  modifications  of  the 
noun,  while  an  adjective  complement  may  take  as  adjunct  an  ad- 
verbial element  of  any  degree. 


216  ANALYSIS. 


CHAPTEE  II. 

ANALYSIS    OF    THE    SIMPLE    SENTENCE. 
I.  THEORY  OF  THE  SIMPLE   SENTENCE. 

246,  The  simple  sentence  consists  of  a  single  proposition,, 
and  hence  can  contain  but  one  finite  verb. 

247,  The  simple  subject  of  the  simple  sentence  consists 
of  a  substantive  element  of  the  first  or  second  degree ;  that 
is,  of  a  word  or  phrase  equivalent  to  a  noun. 

248,  Its  modifications, — The  simple  subject  may  be  mod- 
ified (or  enlarged)  by  any  adjective  element  of  the  first  or 
second  degree,  or  by  any  combination  of  adjective  elements 
of  those  degrees. 

249,  The  simple  predicate  of  the  simple  sentence  always 
consists  of  some  finite  verb,  either  with  or  without  a  com- 
plement. 

250,  Its  modifications,  —  The  simple  predicate  may  be 
modified  by  any  adverbial  element  of  the  first  or  second 
degree,  or  by  any  combination  of  adverbial  elements  of  those 
degrees. 


II.  DIRECTIONS  FOK  ANALYSIS. 

In  analyzing  a  simple  sentence — I.  State  the  nature  of 
the  sentence  (1)  by  structure  /  (2)  by  use. 


NOTES  ON  ANALYSIS.  217 

II.  Designate — 

1.  The  grammatical  subject. 

2.  The  grammatical  predicate  (that  is,  the  predicate  verb). 

3.  The  modifications  of  the  subject. 

4.  The  complement,  when  the  verb  is  incomplete. 

5.  The  modifications,  and  the  complement  (if  any)  of  the  comple- 

ment. 

6.  The  modifications  of  the  grammatical  predicate. 

7.  The  logical  predicate. 

When  the  grammatical  subject  or  predicate  has  no  adjuncts,  it  may  be 
stated  that  "  the  subject  (or  predicate),  grammatical  and  logical,  is — " 


NOTES  ON  ANALYSIS. 

I.  The  order  of  a  sentence  may  be  direct  or  inverted ;  and  in  resolv- 
ing a  sentence — that  is,  in  showing  the  elements  that  enter  into  its 
construction — it  is  proper  to  reduce  it  from  the  inverted  to  the  direct 
form :  thus — 

Inverted.  Now  fades  the  glimmering  landscape  on  the  sight. 

~.          j  The  glimmering  landscape  fades  on  the  sight  now ;  or, 

(  The  glimmering  landscape  now  fades  on  the  sight. 
Inverted.  Thee  the  voice,  the  dance  obey. 
Direct.      The  voice,  the  dance  obey  thee. 
Inverted.  Slow  melting  strains  their  queen's  approach  declare. 
Direct.      Slow  melting  strains  declare  their  queen's  approach. 

II.  In  written  analysis  it  will  be  found  convenient  to  employ  the 
following  method  of  designating  the  degree  of  an  element : 

s'  =  substantive  word :  i.  e.,  substantive  element  first  degree. 
s"  rr  substantive  phrase:  i.  e.,  substantive  element  second  degree. 
s'"  =  substantive  clause :  i.  e.,  substantive  element  third  degree. 
a'  =  adjective  word :  i.  e.,  adjective  element  first  degree. 
a"  :=  adjective  phrase :  i.  e.,  adjective  element  second  degree. 
a!"  =  adjective  clause :  i.  e.,  adjective  element  third  degree. 
adv.'  =  adverbial  word :  i.  e.,  adverbial  element  first  degree. 
adv."  =  adverbial  phrase :  i.  e.,  adverbial  element  second  degree. 
adv.'"  =  adverbial  clause:  i.  e.,  adverbial  element  third  degree, 

K 


218  ANALYSIS. 

Models  for  Oral  Analysis. 

1.  The  hardy  Laplander,  dad  in  skins,  'boldly  defies  tfi6 
severity  of  his  arctic  climate. 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  grammatical  subject  is 
"  Laplander ;"  the  grammatical  predicate,  "  defies." 

The  grammatical  subject  is  modified  [or,  enlarged'}  by  "the"  and 
"hardy,"  adjective  words  [or,  adjective  elements  of  the  first  degree],  and 
by  "  clad  in  skins,"  an  adjective  phrase  [or,  adjective  element  of  the  sec- 
ond degree] — thus  forming  the  logical  subject,  "  the  hardy  Laplander, 
clad  in  skins." 

The  predicate  verb  is  completed  by  the  object  "  severity,"  thus  form- 
ing the  complex  predicate,  "  defies  severity."  The  object  is  modified 
[or,  enlarged]  by  "  the,"  an  adjective  word  [or,  adjective  element  of  the 
first  degree},  and  by  "  of  his  arctic  climate,"  an  adjective  phrase  [or, 
adjective  element  of  the  second  degree}. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  modified  [or,  enlarged]  by  "  boldly," 
an  adverbial  word  [or,  adverbial  element  of  the  first  degree].  The  logical 
predicate  is  "  boldly  defies  the  severity  of  his  arctic  climate." 

NOTE. — The  alternate  forms  of  expression  given  in  brackets  may  be 
used  if  preferred ;  and  when  the  various  synonymous  technical  terms 
are  thoroughly  understood,  entire  freedom  of  statement  may  advan- 
tageously be  permitted. 


2.  This  misfortune  will  certainly  make  the  poor  man 
miserable  for  life. 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  grammatical  subject  is 
"  misfortune ;"  the  grammatical  predicate,  "  will  make." 

The  grammatical  subject  is  modified  by  "  this,"  an  adjective  word — 
thus  forming  the  logical  subject,  "  this  misfortune." 

The  simple  predicate  is  completed  by  the  object  "  man,"  and  by  the 
adjective  complement  "miserable" — thus  forming  the  complex  predi- 
cate, "  will  make  man  miserable." 

The  object  is  modified  by  "the"  and  "poor,"  adjective  words;  the 
adjective  complement  is  modified  by  "for  life,"  an  adverbial  phrase. 


NOTES  ON  ANALYSIS.  210 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  modified  by  "  certainly,"  an  adverbial 
word.  The  logical  predicate  is  "will  certainly  make  the  poor  man 
miserable  for  life." 

3.  The  King  of  Spain  ordered  Fernando  de  Talavera, 

the  prior  of  Prado,  to  assemble  the  most  learned 
astronomers  and  cosmograpkers  of  the  kingdom,  to 
hold  a  conference  with  Columbus. 

This  is  a  simple  declarative  sentence.  The  grammatical  subject  is 
"  king,"  and  the  grammatical  predicate,  "  ordered." 

The  grammatical  subject  is  modified  by  "  the,"  an  adjective  word, 
and  by  "  of  Spain,"  an  adjective  phrase — thus  forming  the  logical  sub- 
ject, "  the  King  of  Spain." 

The  predicate  verb  is  completed  by  the  double  object,  "  Fernando 
de  Talavera,  the  prior  of  Prado,"  a  substantive  phrase,  and  by  "  to 
assemble  the  most  learned  astronomers  .  .  .  Columbus,"  a  substantive 
phrase.  The  grammatical  predicate  is  not  modified. 

The  first  object,  "  Fernando  .  .  .  Prado,"  consists  of  "  Fernando  de 
Talavera,"  a  substantive  element  of  the  first  degree  (complex),  modified 
by  "the  prior  of  Prado,"  an  adjective  phrase.  The  second  object,  "to 
assemble  .  .  .  Columbus,"  consists  of  "  to  assemble  the  most  learned 
astronomers  and  cosmographers  of  the  kingdom,"  a  substantive  phrase, 
modified  by  "  to  hold  a  conference  with  Columbus,"  an  adverbial  phrase. 
The  logical  predicate  is  "  ordered  .  .  .  Columbus." 

4.  Why  stand  we  here  idle  f 

This  is  a  simple  interrogative  sentence.  The  subject,  grammatical 
and  logical,  is  "  we ;"  the  grammatical  predicate,  "  stand." 

The  predicate  verb  is  completed  by  the  predicate  adjective  "  idle  " 
— thus  forming  the  complex  predicate,  "  stand  idle." 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  modified  by  "here,"  an  adverbial 
word.  The  logical  predicate  is  "  stand  here  idle." 

5.  Be  a  hero  in  the  strife. 

This  is  a  simple  imperative  sentence.  The  subject,  grammatical  and 
logical,  is  ihou  or  you  understood ;  the  grammatical  predicate,  "  be." 


ANALYSIS. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  completed  by  "  hero,"  a  predicative 
nominative,  which  is  modified  by  "a,"  an  adjective  word — thus  form- 
ing the  complex  predicate,  "  be  a  hero." 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  modified  by  "in  the  strife,"  an  ad- 
verbial phrase.  The  logical  predicate  is  "  be  a  hero  in  the  strife." 

6.  How  oft  the  sight  of  means  to  do  ill  deeds  makes  ill 
deeds  done  ! 

This  is  a  simple  exclamative  sentence.  The  grammatical  subject  is 
"  sight ;"  the  grammatical  predicate,  "  makes." 

The  grammatical  subject  is  modified  by  "  the,"  an  adjective  word, 
and  "  of  means  to  do  ill  deeds,"  an  adjective  phrase. 

The  simple  predicate  is  completed  by  the  object  "  deeds,"  and  by 
"  done,"  an  adjective  complement  which  modifies  the  object — thus 
forming  the  predicate,  "makes  deeds  done."  The  object  "deeds"  is 
modified  by  "  ill,"  an  adjective  word.  The  simple  predicate  is  modi- 
fied by  "  how  oft,"  an  adverbial  element  of  the  first  degree.  The  logic- 
al predicate  is  "  makes  ill  deeds  done  how  oft." 


Models  for  Written  Analysis. 

1.  Night,  sable  goddess^  from  her  ebon  throne^ 
In  rayless  majesty,  now  stretches  forth 
Her  leaden  sceptre  o'er  a  slumbering  world. 

Grammatical  subject "Night"  (V). 

Grammatical  predicate "  stretches." 

Adjunct  of  subject "  sable  goddess  "  (a'). 

Complement "sceptre"  (dbj.1) 

Adjuncts  of  complement.... "her"  and  "leaden"  (a1). 

Adjuncts  of  predicate "  now  "  and  "  forth  "  (adv.') ;  "  from  her  ebon 

throne,"  "in  rayless  majesty,"  and  "o'er 
a  slumbering  world  "  (adv."). 


EXERCISES.  221 

2.  Him  the  Almighty  Power 

Hurled  headlong  flaming  from  the  ethereal  sky. 
With  hideous  ruin  and  combustion,  down 
To  bottomless  perdition. 

Grammatical  subject "Power'7  (V). 

Grammatical  predicate "  hurled." 

Adjuncts  of  subject "the"  and  "Almighty"  (a1). 

Complement "him"  (obj/). 

Adjuncts  of  complement.... "flaming  from  the  ethereal  sky"  (a"). 

Adjuncts  of  predicate "headlong"  (adv.'),  "  with  hideous  ruin  and 

combustion  "  (adv."},  "  down  to  bottom- 
less perdition  "  (adv."). 


EXERCISE    51. 

Analyze  the  following  simple  sentences : 

A. 

1.  In  unploughed  Maine  he  sought  the  lumberer's  gang. 

2.  Heaven  from  all  creatures  hides  the  book  of  fate. 

3.  Stormed  at  with  shot  and  shell, 
Boldly  they  rode  and  well. 

4.  Shall  we  gather  strength  by  irresolution  and  inaction  ? 

5.  The  moon  threw  its  silvery  light  upon  the  rippling  waters  of  the  lake. 

6.  Tell  all  the  world  thy  joy. 

7.  Clad  in  a  robe  of  everlasting  snow,  Mount  Everest  towers  above  all 

other  mountain-peaks  of  the  globe. 

8.  Now  upon  Syria's  land  of  roses 
Softly  the  light  of  eve  reposes. 

9.  Where  are  you  going  this  summer  ? 

10.  Be  not  like  dumb,  driven  cattle ! 

11.  The  mournful  tidings  of  the  death  of  his  son  filled  the  proud  heart  of 

the  old  man  with  the  keenest  anguish. 

12.  Forbid  it,  Almighty  God  ! 

13.  How  wonderful  is  sleep ! 

14.  Harvey,  the  discoverer  of  the  circulation  of  the  blood,  was  an  eminent 

English  physician. 

15.  When  shall  we  be  stronger  ? 

16.  Vex  not  thou  the  poet's  mind. 

17.  Did  they  make  him  master  ? 


222  ANALYSIS. 

18.  What  a  world  of  happiness  their  harmony  foretells ! 

19.  Between  it  and  the  garden  lies 

A  league  of  grass,  washed  by  a  slow,  broad  stream. 
30.  O,  ever  thus,  from  childhood's  hour 
I've  seen  my  fondest  hopes  decay. 

B. 

1.  The  master  gave  his  scholars  a  lesson  to  learn.* 

2.  The  ploughman  homeward  plods  his  weary  way.f 

3.  Will  it  be  the  next  week,J  or  the  next  year?J 

4.  I  will  give  thee  a  silver  pound  to  row  us  o'er  the  ferry. § 

5.  Having  ridden  up  to  the  spot,  the  enraged  officer  struck  the  unfortu- 

nate man  dead  ||  with  a  single  blow  of  his  sword. 

6.  To  reach  Cathay,  famed  in  the  writings  of  Marco  Polo,TT  fired  the  imag- 

ination of  the  daring  navigator. 

7.  I  saw  a  man  with  a  sword.** 

8.  He  found  all  his  wants  suppliedtt  by  the  care  of  his  friends. 

9.  All  but  oneU  were  killed. 

10.  Music's  golden  tongue. 

11.  Flattered  to  tears§§  this  aged  man  and  poor. HI 

12.  The  scholar  did  nothing  but  read. HIT 

13.  He  does  not***  laugh. 

14.  My  mother  gave  meftt  a  letter  to  readmit 

15.  What  did  you  come  here  for?§§§ 

*  "  To  learn,"  adjective  adjunct  of  the  object, 
t  "Way,"  cognate  objective. 

I  "Week,"  "year,"  adverbial  objectives  equivalent  to  phrases. 
§  "To  row,"  etc.,  adverbial  phrase,  modifier  of  predicate  verb. 
||  "Dead,"  adjective  complement,  adjunct  of  object. 

IF  "Famed  in  the  writings,"  etc.,  adjective  phrase,  modifier  of  complement 
of  infinitive  subject. 

**  "  With  a  sword,"  adjective  phrase,  modifier  of  object. 

ft  "Supplied,"  etc.,  adjective  complement,  adjunct  of  object. 

JI  "But  one,"  adverbial  phrase,  modifier  of  predicate. 

§§  "To  tears,"  adverbial  phrase  (of  effect},  modifier  of  predicate  verb. 

II  "Aged  and  poor,"  co-ordinate  adjective  adjuncts  of  object. 

n  "But  read"=but  (except)  to  read,  adverbial  phrase,  modifier  of  predi- 
cate verb. 

***  "  Not"  may  either  be  considered  a  part  of  the  simple  predicate,  or  an 
adverbial  modifier  of  it. 

ftt  "Me,"  adverbial  adjunct  of  predicate  (indirect  object). 

\\\  "To  read,"  adverbial  adjunct  (infinitive  of  purpose)  of  predicate  verb. 

§§§  "For  what,"  adverbial  phrase,  adjunct  of  predicate  verb. 


THEORY  OF  THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE.        223 


CHAPTER  III. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  COMPLEX  SENTENCE. 
I.  THEORY   OF   THE   COMPLEX   SENTENCE. 

251. — The  simple  sentence  and  the  complex  sentence 
agree  in  this,  that  each  contains  one,  and  only  one,  leading 
proposition ;  they  differ  in  this,  that  the  complex  sentence 
contains,  in  addition  to  the  leading  proposition,  a  subordinate 
one  made  by  means  of  a  clause. 

The  complete  thought  expressed  by  means  of  a  complex  sentence 
does  not  necessarily  differ  from  that  expressed  by  a  simple  sen- 
tence, and  a  simple  sentence  may  be  converted  into  a  complex 
.  sentence  by  expanding  an  element  of  the  first  or  second  degree 
into  an  element  of  the  third  degree :  thus — 

SIMPLE  SENTENCE At  the  dose  of  the  war  (phrase),  Washington 

retired  to  Mount  Vernon. 

COMPLEX  SENTENCE...  When  the  war  dosed  (clause),  Washington 
retired  to  Mount  Vernon. 

252,  Elements, — The  following  are  the  principal  points 
in  regard  to  the  elements  of  the  complex  sentence : 

I.  The  subject  and  the  complement  of  a  complex  sentence 
may  be  a  substantive  word,  phrase,  or  clause. 

II.  A  substantive  element  in  any  part  of  a  complex  sen- 
tence may  be  modified  by  an   adjective  element  of  any 
degree. 

III.  The  predicate  verb  in  a  complex  sentence  may  be 
modified  by  an  adverbial  element  of  any  degree. 

IV.  An  adjective  element  in  any  part  of  a  complex  sen- 
tence may  be  modified  by  an   adverbial  element   of  any 
degree. 


224 


ANALYSIS. 


253,  Nature  of  Clauses.— A  clause  in  a  complex  sentence 
is  substantive,  adjective,  or  adverbial,  according  to  its  office : 
thus — 

1.  That  you  cannot  perform  the  task  is  evident — [substantive  clause 
as  subject]. 

2.  I  dreamt  that  I  dwelt  in  marble  halls — [substantive  clause  as 
object]. 

3.  You  will  never  see  the  fruit  of  the  trees  which  you  are  planting 
— [adjective  clause  modifying  the  noun  "  trees"]. 

4.  He  found  the  book  where  he  left  it — [adverbial  clause  modifying 
the  verb  "  found"]. 

5.  John  is  taller  than  his  brother  is — [adverbial  clause  modifying 
the  adjective  "  taller"]. 

6.  She  behaves  as  well  as  was  anticipated—  [adverbial  clause  modi- 
fying the  adverb  "well"]. 

254,  Connective, — A  clause  is  introduced  by  a  relative 
pronoun,  a  relative  adverb,  or  a  subordinate  conjunction. 


NOTES  ON  CLAUSE -CONNECTIVES. 

I.  The  following  classified  table  of  connectives  is  given  to  aid  the 
pupil  in  distinguishing  clauses  from  principal  members  of  a  sentence. 


I.  Of  Noun  Clauses. 


j  1.  Fact— that  (conj.),  what,  where,  why,  how,  etc. 
1  2.  Alternative— whether. . .  or. 


II.  Of  Adjectiye  Clauses. 


(1.  Person — who,  that. 
2.  Thing— which,  that,  (such).. .  as. 
3.  Place — where,  wherein. 
4.  Time — when,  whereat. 

I.  PLACE.     '         Where,  whither,  whence. 

II.  TIME.  When,  while,  whenever,  till,  until. 

( 1.  Likeness — 05,  as  if. 

III.  MANNER.  •<  2.  Comparison — as  (much)  as,  than. 

(  3.  Effect— (so)  that. 

rl.  Reason — because,  since,  for. 

\  2.  Purpose — (in  order)  that,  lent. 

3.  Condition — if,  unless. 
1 4.  Concession — though. 

As  both  substantive  and  adjective  clauses  are  introduced  by  who, 
when,  where,  etc.,  care  should  be  taken  to  note  the  office  of  the  clause 


III.  Of  Adrerbial  Clauses. 


IV.  CAUSE. 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  ANALYSIS.  225 

before  stating  its  class.  Thus:  "Tell  ine  where  he  lives"  (substantive 
clause) ;  "  This  is  the  place  where  he  lives  "  (adjective  clause).  An  ad- 
jective clause  must  always  have  a  substantive  to  which  it  is  an  adjunct. 

II.  The  conjunction  that  is  frequently  omitted  before  a  substantive 
clause  used  as  the  object  of  a  verb :  as,  u  I  fear  he  will  not  succeed." 
So  also  the  relative  pronoun  that,  when  in  the  objective  case,  is  often 
omitted :  as,  "  I  have  found  the  book  you  want." 

III.  A  substantive  clause  introduced  by  the  conjunction  that  is  fre- 
quently found  in  apposition  with  a  noun,  and  in  such  cases  is  to  be 
treated  as  an  adjective  element  of  the  third  degree.    Thus :  "  The  re- 
port that  he  was  killed  is  untrue." 

IV.  Adverbial  clauses  of  comparison  (introduced  by  as  and  than) 
are  often  highly  elliptical  —  sometimes  the  verb  being  omitted,  and 
sometimes  both  subject  and  verb;  as,  "He  is  as  rich  as  Croesus  [is 
rich] ;"  u  The  teacher  praised  you  more  than  [he  praised]  me." 

V.  An  interrogative  proposition  is  sometimes  used  in  such  a  way 
as  to  be  equivalent  to  a  conditional  clause;  as, "Is  any  merry  [r=if  any 
is  merry],  let  him  sing  psalms." 

VI.  When  a  substantive  clause  forms  the  subject  of  a  sentence,  the 
anticipative  subject  it  is  often  employed ;  the  substantive  clause  is 
then  the  real  or  logical  subject :  as,  "It  was  clear  that  they  were  on  the 
point  of  quarrelling  " — 

It    was  clear 
that-they-icere-on-the 
point-of -quarrelling. 

VII.  The  adverbial  connectives  while,  where,  when,  as,  etc.,  are  to  be 
treated  as  elements  of  the  clause  (adverbial  modifiers  of  the  predicate) ; 
but  subordinate  conjunctions  are  merely  introductory  words,  and  form 
no  part  of  the  structure  of  the  proposition,  though  they  serve  to  render 
it  dependent. 


II.    DIRECTIONS    FOR    ANALYSIS. 

I.  After  stating  the  nature  of  the  sentence,  analyze  the 
sentence  as  a  whole,  taking  up  the  principal  proposition, 

K2 


226  ANALYSIS. 

and  treating  the  dependent  propositions  (clauses)  as  if  they 
were  single  words.     In  this  integral  analysis  designate — 

1.  The  grammatical  subject  of  the  principal  proposition. 

2.  The  grammatical  predicate  of  the  principal  proposition. 

3.  The  modifiers  of  the  subject. 

4.  The  complement  of  the  predicate. 

5.  The  modifiers  of  the  complement. 

6.  The  modifiers  of  the  predicate. 

II.  Analyze  the  clauses  in  their  order,  after  the  manner 
of  the  analysis  for  simple  sentences. 

III.  Mention  the  connective. 

Models  for  Oral  Analysis. 

1.  Before  Time  had  touched  his  hair  with  silver,  he 

had  often  gazed  with  wistful  fondness  towards  that 

friendly  shore  on  which  Puritan  huts  were  already 

beginning  to  cluster  under  the  spreading  shade  of 

hickory  and  maple. 

This  is.  a  complex  declarative  sentence.  The  subject,  grammatical 
and  logical,  is  "  he;"  the  predicate  is  "  had  gazed,"  a  verb  of  complete 
predication,  and  consequently  taking  no  complement. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  modified  by  "  before  Time  had  touched 
his  hair  with  silver,"  an  adverbial  element  of  the  third  degree  (or 
clause)  ;  by  "  often,"  an  adverbial  element  of  the  first  degree ;  and 
by  "with  wistful  fondness"  and  "towards  that  friendly  shore,"  ad- 
verbial elements  of  the  second  degree:  the  noun  "shore"  is  modified 
by  "  on  which  Puritan  huts  .  .  .  maple,"  an  adjective  element  of  the 
third  degree. 

Analysis  of  tlie  Clauses. 

a.  "  (Before)  Time  had  touched  his  hair  with  silver"  is  an  adverbial 
clause,  of  which  the  subject,  grammatical  and  logical,  is  "  Time,"  and 
the  grammatical  predicate,  "  had  touched." 

The  predicate  verb  is  completed  by  the  object  "hair,"  which  is 
modified  by  the  adjective  element  "his." 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  ANALYSIS.  -  227 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  modified  by  "with  silver,"  an  ad- 
verbial element  of  the  second  degree,  thus  forming  the  logical  predi- 
cate, "  had  touched  his  hair  with  silver." 

The  connective  is  "  before,"  an  adverbial  element. 

1).  "  (On  which)  Puritan  huts  were  already  beginning  to  cluster  un- 
der the  spreading  shade  of  hickory  and  maple  "  is  an  adjective  clause, 
of  which  the  grammatical  subject  is  "  huts,"  and  the  grammatical 
predicate  "  were  beginning." 

The  grammatical  subject  is  modified  by  "Puritan,"  an  adjective 
element  of  the  first  degree. 

The  predicate  verb  is  completed  by  the  object  "  to  cluster  .  .  . 
maple,"  a  substantive  element  of  the  second  degree,  consisting  of  the 
infinitive  "  to  cluster,"  modified  by  "  under  the  shade  of  hickory  and 
maple,"  an  adverbial  element  of  the  second  degree. 

The  grammatical  predicate  is  modified  by  "  already,"  an  adverbial 
element  of  the  first  degree.  The  logical  predicate  is  "  had  often  gazed 
.  .  .  maple." 

The  connective  is  "  on  which,"  an  adjective-phrase  relative. 

2.  The  ocean  is  as  deep  as  the  mountains  are  high. 

This  is  a  complex  declarative  sentence,  the  principal  proposition 
being  u  the  ocean  is  as  deep,"  and  the  clause,  "  as  the  mountains  are 

high." 

The  grammatical  subject  is  "ocean;"  the  grammatical  predicate 
"is."  The  grammatical  subject  is  modified  by  the  adjective  word 
"the."  The  grammatical  predicate  is  modified  by  the  adverb  "as," 
and  by  the  adverbial  clause  "  as  the  mountains  are  high.5' 

Analysis  of  the  Clause. 

"  As  the  mountains  are  high." 

The  logical  subject  is  "the  mountains;"  the  grammatical  predicate 
is  "  are,"  completed  by  "  high,"  a  predicate  adjective,  and  modified  by 
"as,"  an  adverbial  adjunct — thus  forming  the  logical  predicate,  "as 
are  high." 


228  •  ANALYSIS. 

Model  for  Written  Analysis. 

A  reader  unacquainted  with  the  real  nature  of  a  clas- 
sical education  will  probably  undervalue  it  when  he 
sees  that  so  large  a  portion  of  time  is  devoted  to  the 
study  of  a  few  ancient  authors,  ivhose  works  seem  to 
have  no  direct  bearing  on  the  studies  and  duties  of 
our  own  generation. 

Grammatical  subject "  reader." 

Grammatical  predicate..."  will  undervalue." 
I  "A"  (a'). 

Adjuncts  of  subject <  "unacquainted  with  the  real  nature  of  a 

(     classical  education"  (a"). 

Complement "it"  (V). 

Adjuncts  of  predicate "probably"  (adv.'). 

["when  he  sees  .  .  .  generation"  (adv.'")]  A, 

Analysis  of  A. 
"  (When)  he  sees  .  .  .  generation"  (adv.'",  adjunct  of  predicate). 

Grammatical  subj  ect "  he. " 

Grammatical  predicate..." sees." 

Complement ["that  so  large  a  portion.  .  .  generation" 

(*'")]  B. 
Adjunct  of  predicate "when"  (adv.1). 

Analysis  of  B. 
"  (That)  so  large  a  portion  .  . .  generation"  (s"f,  obj.  and  pred.  of  A). 

Grammatical  subj  ect "  portion." 

Grammatical  predicate... "is  devoted." 

(  "  so  large  "  (a'). 
Adjuncts  of  subject <  "a"  (a'). 

("of  time"  (a"). 

Adjuncts  of  predicate "to  the  study  of  a  few  ancient  authors 

(adv.")  [whose  works  seem  .  .  .  genera- 
tion "  (a'")]  C. 


EXERCISES.  229 

Analysis  of  C« 
"Whose  works  seem  .  . .  generation"  (a'",  adjunct  of  "authors"). 

Grammatical  subject "  works." 

Grammatical  predicate ..."  seem." 

Adjuncts  of  subject "whose"  (a'). 

Complement "to  have"  (af). 

Complement  of  compl "bearing"  (sf). 

/"no"  (O. 
J" direct"  (a'). 
Adjuncts  of  second  compl,  <  «  on  the  studies  and  duties  of  our  genera- 

(     tion"  (a"). 


EXERCISE    52. 

Analyze  the  following  complex  sentences : 

A. 

1.  The  rose  that  all  are  praising  is  not  the  rose  for  me. 

2.  When  we  go  forth  in  the  morning  we  lay  a  moulding  hand  upon  our 

flestiny. 

3.  Whilst  light  and  colors  rise  and  fly, 
Lives  Newton's  deathless  memory. 

4.  The  boy  stood  on  the  burning  deck 
Whence  all  but  him  had  fled. 

5.  WThen  he  was  a  boy,  Franklin,  who  afterwards  became  a  distinguished 

statesman  and  philosopher,  learned  his  trade  in  the  printing-office  of 
his  brother,  who  published  a  paper  in  Boston. 

6.  He  that  fights  and  runs  away 
May  live  to  fight  another  day. 

7.  Go  into  Turkey,  where  the  pachas  will  tell  you  that  the  Turkish  govern- 

ment is  the  most  perfect  in  the  world. 

8.  The  Dutch  florist  who  sells  tulips  for  their  weight  in  gold  laughs  at  the 

antiquary  who  pays  a  great  price  for  a  rusty  lamp. 

9.  When  I  look  upon  the  tombs  of  the  great,  every  emotion  of  envy  dies  in 

me. 

10.  We  must  not  think  the  life  of  a  man  begins  when  he  can  feed  himself. 

11.  Tell  me  not  in  mournful  numbers 
Life  is  but  an  empty  dream ! 


230  ANALYSIS. 

12.  When,  in  the  course  of  human  events,  it  becomes  necessary  for  one  peo- 
ple to  dissolve  the  political  bands  which  have  connected  them  with 
another,  and  to  assume,  among  the  powers  of  the  earth,  the  separate 
and  equal  station  to  which  the  laws  of  nature  and  of  nature's  God  en- 
title them,  a  decent  respect  to  the  opinions  of  mankind  requires  that 
they  should  declare  the  causes  which  impel  them  to  the  separation. 

B. 

1.  I  do  not  admire  such  books  as  he  writes.* 

2.  It  is  only  by  the  fresh  feelings  of  the  heart  that  mankind  can  be  very 

powerfully  affected. t 

3.  That  man  has  been  from  time  immemorial  a  right-handed  animal  is  be- 

yond dispute.  % 

4.  He  is  proud  that  he  is  noble.  § 

5.  The  boy  ran  so  fast  that  I  could  not  overtake  him.  I 

6.  My  Father  is  greater  than  I.^[ 

7.  Oh  !  **  that  I  knew  where  I  might  find  him ! 

8.  The  older  you  become, ft  the  wiser  you  should  be. 

9.  His  conduct  is  not  such  as  I  admire.  Jt 

10.  See,  here  is  a  bower 

Of  eglantine  with  honeysuckles  woven, 
Where  not  a  spark§§  of  prying  light  creeps  in. 

11.  The  lamb  thy  riot  doomed  to  bleed  to-day, 
Had  he|||  thy  reason,  would  he  skip  and  play? 

12.  'TisUTT  better  to  have  loved  and  lost 
Than  never  to  have  loved  at  all. 


*  "As  he  writes,"  adjective  clause,  adjunct  of  "books,"  and  correlative 
with  "such." 

t  "  That  mankind  . . .  affected,"  substantive  clause  in  apposition  with  "  it." 
"  Is  "—exists  (complete  verb). 

%  "Beyond  dispute"  (a"),  complement  of  "is." 

§  "That  he  is  noble"  (adv."'),  adjunct  of  predicate  (reason). 

1  "That  I  could  .  .  .  him"  (adv.'"),  modifier  of  adverb  "fast." 

1"  Supply  am. 

**  Supply  a  verb :  as,  I  wish. 

ft  "The  older,"  etc.  (adv.'"),  modifying  verb  of  principal  clause,  "should 
be." 

%%  "As  I  admire"  (a'"),  complement  and  co-ordinate  with  "such."  "As" 
hag  the  office  of  a  relative  pronoun  (s'),  and  is  the  object  of  "admire." 

§§  "Where  not  a  spark,"  etc.  (a'"),  adjunct  of  "  bower." 

III!  "He,"  pleonastic  subject;  omit  in  analysis. 

Ill  "It"  (in  Vis),  anticipative  subject;  logical  subject,  "to  have  loved  and 
lost." 


THEORY  OF  THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE.  231 


CHAPTEK  IV. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE. 
I.  THEORY   OF   THE   COMPOUND   SENTENCE. 

255,  The  propositions  in  a  compound  sentence  must  be 
co-ordinate  (that  is,  of  the  same  rank)  and  connected  by 
co-ordinate  conjunctions,  expressed  or  understood. 

256,  Members,  —  The  propositions  in  a  compound  sen- 
tence  are   called  members.     These   may  be  two  or  more 
simple  sentences,  or  a  simple  and  one  or  more  complex 
sentences,  or  any  combination  of  simple  and  of  complex 
sentences,  or  of  both. 

I.  Whatever  the  constituent  elements  oi  the  members  of  a  compound 
sentence  may  be,  these  members  can  noways  be  dependent  on 
one  another ;  for  equality  of  rank  in  its  members  is  the  test  of  a 
compound  sentence. 

II.  When  a  member  of  a  compound  sentence  is  a  simple  sentence, 
it  may  be  called  a  simple  member ;  when  a  complex  sentence,  a 
complex  member. 

257,  Abridged  Compounds, — When  co-ordinate  proposi- 
tions have  the  same  subject  or  predicate  (or  even  the  same 
complement,  or  the  same  modifier  of  the  subject  or  of  the 
predicate  verb),  the  common  element  may  be  omitted ;  and 
in  this  case  the  compound  sentence  is  called  a  contracted 
compound  sentence.     Thus — 

1.  God  sustains  and  [God]  governs  the  world — [ellipsis  of  common 
subject]. 


232  ANALYSIS. 

2.  He  loved  not  wisely,  but  [he  loved]  too  well — [ellipsis  of  com- 
mon predicate]. 

3.  You  advance  slowly  but  [you  advance]  surely — [ellipsis  of  com- 
mon subject  and  predicate,  "  you  advance  "]. 

4.  With  every  effort,  with  every  breath,  and  with  every  motion — 
voluntary  or  involuntary — a  part  of  the  muscular  substance  be- 
comes dead,  separates  from  the  living  part,  combines  with  the 
remaining  portions  of  inhaled  oxygen,  and  is  removed. 

In  this  sentence  are  four  predicates,  having  only  one  subject,  but  three  dis- 
tinct modifications  of  these  predicates.  To  express  the  entire  meaning  of  the 
sentence  in  separate  propositions,  we  should  have  first  to  repeat  the  subject 
with  each  predicate,  making  four  simple  sentences,  and  then  to  repeat  each  of 
those  sentences  with  each  of  the  modifications— thus  making  twelve  proposi- 
tions.   

II.  METHOD  OF   ANALYSIS. 

258, — As  the  members  of  a  compound  sentence  are  either 
simple  or  complex,  the  analysis  of  a  compound  sentence  is 
accomplished  by  the  analysis  of  its  members,  according  to 
the  models  for  the  analysis  of  simple  and  of  complex  sen- 
tences. 

NOTES  ON  THE  COMPOUND  SENTENCE. 

I.  The  following  table  of  the  co-ordinative  connectives  may  aid  in 
distinguishing  the  special  nature  of  the  connection  between  two  or 
among  more  than  two  members  of  a  compound  sentence. 

(  And,  also,  likewise,  again,  besides. 
Copulative. . .  ^  Moreover,  further,  furthermore. 

(  Not  only.. .  but,  then,  too  (following  another  word). 

(Either...  or. 
Disjunctive . .  <  Neither. . .  nor,  nor  (in  the  sense  of  and  not). 

(  Otherwise,  else. 

f  But,  on  the  other  hand,  but  then. 

\  Only,  nevertheless,  at  the  same  time. 
Adversative..  <  However,  notwithstanding. 

I  On  the  one  hand,  on  the  other  hand,  conversely. 

I  Yet,  still,  for  all  that. 

,'  Therefore,  thereupon,  wherefore. 

1  Accordingly,  consequently. 
Te I  Hence,  whence,  so  then,  and  so. 

[  For,  thus. 


REVIEW  EXERCISE  IN  ANALYSIS.  233 

II.  In  regard  to  the  co-ordinative  conjunction,  it  is  enough  to  state 
that  it  is  a  connective ;  it  does  not  enter  into  the  construction  of  the 
members  which  it  connects. 


REVIEW   EXERCISE    IN   ANALYSIS. 

Analyze  the  following  sentences : 

1.  Life  is  real. — Longfellow. 

2.  The  grave  is  not  its  goal. — Longfellow. 

3.  If  Hannibal  had  not  wintered  at  Capua,  by  which  circumstance  his 

troops  were  enervated,  but,  on  the  contrary,  after  the  battle  of  Can- 
nae, had  proceeded  to  Rome,  it  is  not  improbable  that  the  great  city 
would  have  fallen. — Gibbon. 

4.  Time  but  the  impression  deeper  makes, 

As  streams  their  channels  deeper  wear. — Burns. 

5.  Gayly  chattering  to  the  clattering 

Of  the  brown  nuts  downward  pattering 

Leap  the  squirrels  red  and  gray.— Whittier. 

6.  The  long-remembered  beggar  was  his  guest. — Goldsmith. 

7.  All  that  I  have,  and  all  that  I  am,  and  all  that  I  hope,  in  this  life,  I  am 

now  ready  here  to  stake  upon  it ;  and  I  leave  off  as  I  began,  that,  live 
or  die,  survive  or  perish,  I  am  for  the  Declaration.—  Webster. 

8.  The  evil  that  men  do  lives  after  them ; 

The  good  is  oft  interred  with  their  bones. — Shakspeare. 

9.  Toiling,  rejoicing,  sorrowing,  onward  through  life  he  goes.— Longfellow. 

10.  In  such  a  cause  I  grant 

An  English  poet's  privilege  to  rant. — Pope. 

11.  Hence  loathed  melancholy 
Of  Cerberus  and  blackest  midnight  born, 
In  Stygian  cave  forlorn, 

'Mongst  horrid  shapes,  and  shrieks  and  sights  unholy.—  Milton. 

12.  We  do  not,  indeed,  expect  all  men  to  be  philosophers  or  statesmen,  but 

we  confidently  trust,  and  our  expectation  of  the  duration  of  our  sys- 
tem of  government  rests  on  that  trust,  that  by  the  diffusion  of  general 
knowledge,  and  good  and  virtuous  sentiments,  the  political  fabric  may 
be  secure,  as  well  against  open  violence  and  overthrow  as  against  that 
slow  but  sure  undermining  of  licentiousness. — Webster. 

13.  If  we  confine  our  view  to  the  globe  we  inhabit,  it  must  be  allowed  that 

chemistry  and  geology  are  the  two  sciences  which  not  only  offer  the 
fairest  promise,  but  already  contain  the  largest  generalizations. — Buckle 

14.  Better  to  reign  in  hell  than  serve  in  heaven.—  Milton. 


234:  ANALYSIS. 

15.  Where  are  the  flowers,  the  fair  young  flowers,  that  lately  sprung  and 

stood 
In  brighter  light  and  softer  airs,  a  beauteous  sisterhood? — Bryant. 

16.  Here  rests  his  head  upon  the  lap  of  earth, 

A  youth  to  fortune  and  to  fame  unknown.— Gray. 

17.  Further  observation  and  experience  have  given  me  a  different  idea  of 

this  feathered  voluptuary,  which  I  will  venture  to  impart,  for  the 
benefit  of  my  young  readers  who  may  regard  him  with  the  same  un- 
qualified envy  and  admiration  which  1  once  indulged. —  Washington 
Irving. 

18.  All  nature  is  but  art  unknbwn  to  thee ; 

All  chance,  direction  which  thou  canst  not  see ; 
All  discord,  harmony  not  understood ; 
All  partial  evil,  universal  good. — Pope. 

19.  That  moss-covered  vessel  I  hail  as  a  treasure ; 

For  often,  at  noon,  when  returned  from  the  field, 
I  found  it  the  source  of  an  exquisite  pleasure, 
The  purest  and  sweetest  that  nature  can  yield. —  Woodworth, 

20.  Now  came  still  evening  on,  and  twilight  gray 
Had  in  her  sober  livery  all  things  clad. — Milton. 

21.  On  the  cross  beam  under  the  Old  South  bell 
The  nest  of  a  pigeon  is  builded  well. 

In  summer  and  winter  that  bird  is  there, 
Out  and  in  with  the  morning  air. 
I  love  to  see  him  track  the  street, 
With  his  wary  eye  and  active  feet ; 
And  I  often  watch  him  as  he  springs, 
Circling  the  steeple  with  easy  wings, 
Till  across  the  dial  his  shade  has  passed, 
And  the  belfry  edge  is  gained  at  last.— Willis. 

22.  There  is  a  land,  of  every  land  the  pride, 

Beloved  of  heaven  o'er  all  the  world  beside.—  Montgomery. 

23.  Now  leave  complaining  and  begin  your  tea. — Pope. 

24.  This  is  the  forest  primeval.     The  murmuring  pines  and  the  hemlock 
Bearded  with  moss,  and  in  garments  green,  indistinct  in  the  twilight, 
Stand  like  Druids  of  old  with  voices  sad  and  prophetic, 

Stand  like  harpers  hoar,  with  beards  that  rest  on  their  bosoms. 

—  Longfellow. 

25.  On  a  sudden,  open  fly 
With  impetuous  recoil  and  jarring  sounds 
The  infernal  doors ;  and  on  their  hinges  grate 
Harsh  thunder.— Milton. 

26.  In  her  ear  he  whispers  gayly, 

"  If  my  heart  by  signs  can  tell, 
Maiden,  I  have  watched  thee  daily, 
And  I  think  thou  lov'st  me  well." — Tennyson. 


REVIEW  EXERCISES  IN  ANALYSIS.  235 

27.  We  next  hear  of  him,  with  myriads  of  his  kind,  banqueting  among  the 
reeds  of  the  Delaware,  and  grown  corpulent  with  good-feeding.  He 
has  changed  his  name  in  travelling.  Boblincon  no  more — he  is  the 
reed-bird  now,  the  much-sought-for  titbit  of  Pennsylvania  epicures, 
the  rival  in  unlucky  fame  of  the  ortolan !  Wherever  he  goes,  pop ! 
pop !  pop  !— every  rusty  firelock  in  the  country  is  blazing  away.  He 
sees  his  companions  falling  by  thousands  around  him.  Does  he  take 
warning  and  reform  ?  Alas !  not  he.  Incorrigible  epicure  !  again  he 
wings  his  flight.  The  rice  swamps  of  the  South  invite  him.  He  gorges 
himself  among  them  almost  to  bursting;  he  can  scarcely  fly  for  cor- 
pulency. He  has  once  more  changed  his  name,  and  is  now  the  famous 
rice-bird  of  the  Carolinas.  Last  stage  of  his  career:  behold  him  spit- 
ted, with  dozens  of  his  corpulent  companions,  and  served  up,  a  vaunted 
dish,  on  the  tr.ble  of  some  Southern  gastronome.—  Washington  Irving. 


APPENDIX. 


A. 

THE   NOUN. 


I.  NOTES  ON  NUMBER. 

[Grammar,  pages  11-14.] 

1.  The  Inflection  -s,  -es. — In  Anglo-Saxon,  or  the  oldest  English, 
there  were  several   plural   suffixes,  as,  -as,  -an,  -a,  -u:  thus,  stan-as,* 
stones ;  steorr-an,  stars ;  hand-a,  hands ;  lim-u,  limbs.   After  the  conquest 
of  England  by  the  Norman  French  in  the  llth  century,  most  of  these 
terminations  gradually  dropped  out  of  the  language,  and  -as,  changed 
to  -es,  and  in  many  cases  to  -s,  became  the  ordinary  sign  of  plurality. 
Hence  our  plural  inflection  -s  is  a  shortened  form  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
•as ;  thus  the  plural  of  smith  was  first  smith-as,  then  smith-es,  and 
finally  smiths. 

2.  Older  Inflections.  —  Though  we  are  in  the  habit  of  speaking 
of  the  plural  in  -s  or  -es  as  the  regular  plural,  it  should  not  be  forgot- 
ten that  there  were,  in  early  English,  various  other  inflections  of  the 
plural  which  were  quite  as  much  used  as  -es,  and  which  were  therefore 
quite  as  regular.     Thus — 

Ox,  plural  oxen  (Anglo-Saxon  oxa,  plural  ox-ari),  furnishes  an  example 
of  one  of  the  older  and  very  common  modes  of  forming  the  plural, 
namely,  by  the  suffix  -an,  afterwards  changed  to  -en. 

Child  takes  the  plural  form  children.  The  Anglo-Saxon  plural  was 
childru :  this  became  first  childre  (or  childer),  and  then  children,  so  that 
it  appears  to  be  a  double  plural  =  childr(u)  -\~  en. 

Brethren  (plural  of  brother)  is  an  instance  of  the  use  of  the  suffix 
•en,  together  with  a  radical  change. 

3.  False  Plurals.  —  The  s  in  alms,  riches,  and  eaves  is  not  a  sign 


238  APPENDIX. 

of  the  plural ;  but  these  words,  though  really  singulars,  are  almost  al- 
ways treated  as  plurals. 

Alms  is  a  shortened  form  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  celmesse,  a  singular  noun. 

Riches  is  derived  from  the  French  richesse,  a  singular  noun. 

Eaves  is  the  modern  spelling  of  the  Old-English  efese  (or  yfes),  a 
singular  noun. 


II.  NOTES  ON  GENDER 

[Grammar,  pages  16-19.] 

1.  Historical. — It  has  been  seen  that  in  Anglo-Saxon  nouns  were 
classified  as  to  gender,  not  by  the  sex  of  the  object,  but  by  the  termina- 
tion of  the  noun,  as  in  Latin  and  Greek — that  is,  they  had  grammatical 
gender.    Thus,  nouns  ending  in  -dom  (as  freedom=freedom)  were  mas- 
culine; those  ending  in  -img1  (as  gretung=  greeting)  were  feminine, 
while  many  ending  in  -en  (as  mcegden— maiden)  were  neuter.  •  During 
this  early  period  of  our  language  the  articles,  adjectives,  and  adjective 
pronouns  had  distinctive  terminations  of  gender,  and  were  required  (as 
is  the  case  in  Latin,  Greek,  French,  and  German)  to  agree  in  gender 
with  the  nouns  to  which  they  belonged. 

2.  Old  Feminines. — The  suffix  -ster  (Anglo-Saxon  -estre)  was  the 
feminine  inflection  corresponding  to  the  masculine  ending  -er  (or 
-ere) :   thus,  'boec-ere  (a  male   baker),  bcec-estre   (a  female  baker) ;   so 
sang-ere,  sing-er ;  sang-estre,  a  female  singer.     The  substitution  of  the 
Norman  -  French  -ess  for  the  Anglo-Saxon  -ster  occurred  about  the 
14th  century. 

Spinster  (an  unmarried  woman)  is  an  instance  of  the  preservation 
of  this  Anglo-Saxon  feminine  suffix ;  for  spin-ster  originally  meant  a 
female  spinn-^r.  After  a  time  -ster  ceased  to  be  felt  as  a  feminine  end- 
ing, and  merely  denoted  one  who  ;  indeed,  it  often  denoted  the  mascu- 
line gender,  as  tapster ;  and  now  it  is  used  principally  as  a  suffix  im- 
plying diminutiveness  or  some  degree  of  depreciation,  as  in  punster, 
youngster. 

Songstress  (feminine  of  singer)  is  an  example  of  a  double  termination 
of  the  feminine  gender— &w<7-{-s£r-|-m,  the  French  suffix  -ess  being  ap- 
pended to  songster  when  the  Anglo-Saxon  suffix  -ster  had  ceased  to 
denote  the  feminine  gender. 

Yixen  (Old  English  fyx-en,  the  feminine  of  fox)  is  the  solitary  in- 
stance now  remaining  of  the  use  of  the  once  common  feminine  suffix  -en. 

3.  Masculine  from  Feminine. — As  a  rule,  the  feminine  is  formed 
from  the  masculine ;  but  the  reverse  is  the  case  in  the  following  words : 


THE  NOUN.  239 

Widower:  in  Old  English,  widow  was  both  masculine  and  fem- 
inine ;  later,  it  was  feminine  only ;  finally,  -er  was  added  to  denote  the 
masculine. 

Bridegroom  is  formed  from  Ir ide-\- Old-English  guma,  a  man. 

Gander  is  derived  from  gam,  a  goose. 


III.  NOTES   ON  CASE. 

[Grammar,  pages  20-22.] 

1.  Historical. — In  the  ancient  languages — Latin,  Greek,  etc. — many 
inflections  were  used  to  denote  the  various  relations  of  nouns  to  other 
words ;  and  these  several  inflected  forms  were  called  cases.     The  Latin 
language  had  changes  of  form  to  express — 

The  subject  of  a  verb— the  nominative  case  :  as,  url-s,  a  city. 

The  object  of  a  verb — the  accusative  case :  as,  urb-em,  a  city. 

The  indirect  object — the  dative  case :  as,  urb-i,  for  or  to  a  city. 

Adverbial  relations — the  ablative  case :  as,  url-e,  from,  with,  or  by 
a  city. 

Specification  or  limitation — the  genitive  case  (corresponding  to  our 
possessive) :  as,  urb-is,  a  city's. 

The  term  case  (casus)  literally  means  any  form  that  "  happens  to  oc- 
cur"— any  relation  that  befalls  a  noun.  The  old  grammarians  illus- 
trated the  changes  of  case  by  the  following  diagram : 

The  vertical  line  represented  the  nominative 
case  (called  casus  rectus,  or  upright  case).  If  this 
line,  moving  on  a  hinge  at  X,  were  to  fall  or  be 
bent  downward,  it  would  assume  the  various  oblique 
positions  marked  Gr,  D,  etc.,  to  express  the  six  Latin 
cases,  the  nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative, 
vocative,  and  ablative. 

The  diagram  gives  origin  to  the  terms  decline, 

declension  (from  de,  down,  and  clinere,  to  bend),  the  upright  line  being 
lent  downward ;  and  inflect,  inflection  (from  in,  into,  and  flectere,  to 
bend). 

2.  Early  English  Cases.  —  English,  in  its  earliest  or  Anglo-Saxon 
stage,  was  much  fuller  in  its  case-forms  than  is  our  modern  English. 
Nouns  had  then  five  cases,  answering  to  the  nominative,  genitive,  da- 
tive, accusative,  and  ablative  of  Latin — though  there  were  not  always 
distinct  forms  for  all  these  cases.     The  following  table  exhibits  the 
inflections  of  the  noun  man  in  Latin,  Anglo-Saxon,  and  English. 


24:0  APPENDIX. 

LATIN.  ANGLO-SAXON.  ENGLISH. 

SINGULAR.  SINGULAR.  SINGULAR. 

Nominative  Case... homo  man  man 

Genitive homin-as  mann-^s  man's 

Dative homin-z  men  man 

Accusative homin-m  man  man 

Vocative homo  man  man 

Ablative hornin-0  m^n  man 

PLURAL.  PLURAL.  PLURAL, 

Nominative homin-ds  men  men 

Genitive homin-wra  mann-a  men's 

Dative homin-ibus  mann-tm  men. 

Accusative homin-^s  men  men 

Vocative homines  men  men 

Ablative homin-ifa/s  mann-ww  men 

It  will  be  seen  from  this  table  that,  while  the  Anglo-Saxon  had  a 
less  elaborate  apparatus  of  case-endings  than  the  Latin,  modern  English 
has  still  fewer  inflections  than  the  Anglo-Saxon  had — that,  in  fact,  it 
has  lost  all  the  case-forms  except  the  genitive  (possessive). 

3.  Use  of  -'s. — The  general  use  of  the  apostrophe  to  mark  the  elision 
of  the  e  in  the  possessive  singular  is  comparatively  modern,  and  first 
became  common  about  the  end  of  the  17th  century.     Milton  (died 
1674)  did  not  use  this  mark.     The  probable  reason  of  its  employment 
was  to  distinguish  the  possessive  singular  from  the  nominative  plural : 
for  example,  to  distinguish  Mrdes  (possessive   singular)  from  birdes 
(nominative  plural). 

4.  Possessive  Plural. — The  same  explanation  does  not  apply  to  the 
use  of  the  apostrophe  after  the  s  in  the  possessive  plural.     The  apos- 
trophe here  does  not  mark  any  elision,  because  no  vowel  has  been 
dropped.     The  use  of  this  conventional  sign  began  about  the  17th 
century,  through  the  notion  that  the  s  (as  in  boys)  was  necessarily  the 
suffix  of  the  nominative  plural,  though  in  reality  it  was  quite  as  much 
the  suffix  of  the  possessive  plural.     The  use  of  the  apostrophe  after  the 
e  in  the  plural  is  therefore  arbitrary  and  meaningless ;  still  it  is  a  con- 
venient mode  of  marking  case-use. 


THE  PRONOUN. 


B. 

THE  PRONOUN. 

[Grammar,  pages  28-32.] 

1.  The  personal  pronouns  in  Anglo-Saxon  were  thus  declined  :* 

First  Person.  Second  Person. 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL.  SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

Nom..lc    =1,  we  =we.  thu  —  tbou,  ge      =ye. 

Gen. .  .min=mme,  we=our.  thin=t}imQ1  eower=yo\ir. 

Dat. .  .me  =(to)  me,  us  —{to}  us.  the  =(to)  thee,  eow   =(to)  you. 

Ace... me  =me;  us  =us.  the  =tbee;  eow   =you. 

Third  Person  (or  Demonstrative). 

SINGULAR.  PLURAL. 

MASCULINE.  FEMININE.  NEUTER.  MASO.,  FEM.,  NEUT. 

Fom..he    =he,  heo  —  she,  hit  =it.  hi    =tbey. 

Gen.  ..his  =his,  fa*re=her,  his  =(its).  Aira= their. 

Dat . .  .him=(to)  him,  #i>e=(to)  her,  A|m=(to)  it.  fo'm=(to)  them. 

Ace... hine— \i\m\  hig  =  her;  Aii  =it.  7i&7  =them. 

2.  My^  thine,  etc. — The  forms  my,  thy  are  shortened  forms  of  mine, 
thine. 

3.  Its. — The  possessive  form  its  is  a  word  of  comparatively  recent 
introduction  (about  1640).    It  is  not  found  in  the  English  Bible  (King 
James's  version,  published  1611).     The  place  of  its  was  filled  by  his, 
which  was  the  possessive  case  of  hit  (it)  as  well  as  of  he. 

4.  Him. — Him  was  originally  the  dative  case,  the  accusative  (ob- 
jective) being  hine ;  but  this  latter  form  was  replaced  by  him  as  early 
as  the  14th  century.     The  original  dative  force  of  him  still  survives  in 
our  modern  use  of  it  as  indirect  object :  as  in  "  Give  me  [=to  me]  the 
book."     Also  in  u 7??<?thinks "  [—it  appears  to  me];  "woe  is  me"  [=to 
me]. 

5.  The  relative  and  interrogative  pronouns  in  Anglo-Saxon  were 
thus  declined: 


*  It  should  be  remarked  that  the  Anglo-Saxon  pronouns  of  the  first  and 
second  persons  had,  in  addition  to  the  singular  and  plural  numbers,  a  dual 
number  (as,  wit=\ve  two ;  git=ye  two);  but  as  these  forms  have  wholly  disap- 
peared, it  is  needless  to  give  their  declension. 

L 


242  APPENDIX. 


Singular.  Plural. 

,  FEM.  KEUT.  AIASO.,  NEUT. 


Nom...hwa         =who,  hwaet  =what. 

Gen.  ...hwaes       = whose,  hwaes  = whose. 


Dat....hwam    \  (hwam     . 

Ace. . .  .hwone  j  ~~       )m'  (  hwaet  =what. 

Abl hwi  ;  hwi      =why. 


hwa 

hwaes 

hwam 

hwone 

hwy 


6.  Whose  (hwaes),  as  will  be  observed,  was  the  possessive  both  of 
who  (hwa)  and  of  what  (hwaet).  Which  is  a  compound  of  wh  (in  icho 
and  what)  and  lie,  like ;  hence  =:icho-like  or  what-like.  The  adverb  why 
arose  from  the  ablative  case  of  who,  ichat,  and  literally  means  for  what 
reason  ?  or,  ~by  what  cause  f 


C. 

THE  VERB. 


I.  NOTES  ON  THE  PARADIGM. 

[Grammar,  pages  71-74.] 

1.  The  paradigm  of  the  English  verb  given  in  this  book  (as  exempli- 
fied in  the  conjugation  of  to  love)  is,  substantially,  that  which  from  the 
time  of  Lindley  Murray  has  been  presented  in  most  English  grammars ; 
and  (some  slight  differences  in  nomenclature  excepted)  it  is  that  which 
appears  in  the  most  approved  grammars  now  in  use  in  this  country. 

Though  the  received  paradigm  is  not  wholly  satisfactory,  it  is 
probably  as  good  as  could  be  set  forth,  unless  a  radical  change  in  the 
mode  of  conjugation  were  made. 

2.  The  difficulty  in  the  way  of  a  scientific  arrangement  of  the  forms 
of  the  English  verb  results  from  the  fact  that  two  questions  are  yet 
unsettled,  to  wit : 

(1.)  Should  or  should  not  inflection  be  made  the  test  in  the  scheme 
of  conjugation  for  the  in-letting  our  out-leaving  of  a  verbal  form  ? 

(2.)  If  compound  forms  are  to  be  admitted,  how  many  shall  have 
place  in  the  paradigm?  and  how  shall  these  forms  be  arranged  by 
mood  and  tense  ? 

If  only  the  simple  and  the  inflected  forms  are  to  have  place  in  the 
conjugation  of  the  verb  (a  view  taken  by  many  modern  English  writers 
on  English  grammar),  the  paradigm  will  be  very  brief.  Thus,  let  a  line 

( )  stand  for  the  root  form,  and  we  have  the  following  scheme  of 

a  regular  verb : 


THE   VERB.  213 

INDICATIVE  PRESENT. 


SINGULAR. 


2.  --  et  (or  -est)  2.  — 

3.  --  s  (or  -es)  3.  - 

INDICATIVE  PAST. 

1.  ---  ed  1.  --  ed 

2.  --  ed  -f  -st  (or  -est)  2.  --  ed 

3.  --  ed  3.  --  ed 

SUBJUNCTIVE  PRESENT. 


2.  (if) 2.  

3.  (if) 3.  

SUBJUNCTIVE  PAST. 

1. ed  1. ed 

2. ed  2. ed 

3. ed  3. ed 

INFINITIVE  MOOD. 

Gerund:  ing 

Present  Participle  : ing 

Past  Participle : ed 

Thus,  confining  the  conjugation  to  forms  simple  and  inflected,*  it 
appears : 

(1.)  That  a  verb  may  be  parsed  as  in  one  or  other  of  three  moods  and 
two  tenses. 

(2.)  That  the  sole  inflections  of  the  regular  English  verb,  in  both 
voices,  are/tfwr,  to  wit :  -st  (or  -est),  -s  (or  -es),  -ed,  and  -ing. 

3.  As  against  the  theory  of  restricting  the  mood  and  tense  forms  to 
the  simple  and  inflected  parts,  and  as  showing  that  some  compound 
forms  should  be  admitted  into  the  conjugation,  the  following  con- 
siderations may  be  cited : 

(1.)  Many  of  the  compound  tenses,  or  verb-phrases,  express  a  mean- 
ing not  made  up  of  the  combined  original  meanings  of  their  component 
parts,  but  a  new  meaning :  so  that  the  constituent  elements  of  such 
phrases  cannot  properly  be  treated  separately.  Thus,  in  the  sentence 
"The  river,  will  overflow  its  banks  to-morrow," 

*  In  thus  conjugating  a  verb,  component  parts  of  a  tense-form  or  a  mood- 
form  are  parsed  separately.  Thus — 

"He  shall  be  called  John." 

"Shall,"  verb  transitive,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  third  person  sin- 
gular. 

"Be,"  verb  intransitive,  infinitive  present. 

"  Called,"  past  participle  of  the  verb  to  call. 


24:4:  APPENDIX. 

the  verb-phrase  "  will  overflow  "  (future  tense)  is  made  up  of  the  third 
person  singular  of  the  verb  to  will,  and  the  infinitive  "  [to]  overflow." 
But  the  sense  of  the  statement  is  not  that  the  river  wills  or  determines 
to  overflow — the  verb  merely  predicates  the  future  action  of  overflow- 
ing.* So  "I  have  written  a  letter"  is  resolvable  into  "I  have  [or 
possess]  a  letter  written ;"  but  that  is  not  now  the  signification  con- 
veyed by  the  sentence. 

The  same  argument  applies  to  the  compounds  may,  can,  would,  should, 
etc.,  with  infinitives,  forming  the  potential  mood — a  mood  that  some 
grammarians  would  exclude  from  the  paradigm.  It  seems  to  be  a 
sufficient  ground  for  the  admission  of  this  mood  into  the  conjugation 
of  the  English  verb  that  these  verb-phrases  have  meanings  distinct 
from  the  signification  of  their  elements,  and  that  they  denote  modes  of 
assertion  corresponding  to  those  which  in  inflected  languages  are  ex- 
pressed by  modifications  of  the  verb-root. 

(2.)  Many,  perhaps  all,  of  the  verb  inflections  in  those  languages  that 
exhibit  the  grammatical  forms  of  the  verb  by  means  of  suffixes  were 
originally  separate  words,  which  afterwards  coalesced  with  the  root, 
just  as  we  find  in  loved  (=love-did).  Thus  the  French  aimer ai  (future 
tense)  is  composed  of  the  infinitive  aimer  (to  love),  and  ai  (I  have)  = 
I  have  to  love,  that  is,  I  shall  love.  If,  then,  we  take  into  consideration 
that  the  English  auxiliaries  have  for  the  most  part  lost  their  original 
meaning  as  independent  words,  and  become  mere  formative  elements, 
and  that  our  verb-phrases  serve  to  express  the  various  modes  and  con- 
ditions of  assertion  which  in  the  classical  languages  are  denoted  by 
tense  and  mood  inflections,  there  seems  to  be  sufficient  reason  for 
giving  these  compound  forms  a  place  in  the  conjugation. 


II.  LIST    OF    IRREGULAR    VERBS. 

Explanation* — When  a  verb  has  a  past  or  past  participle,  or  both, 
of  the  regular  conjugation,  this  fact  is  indicated  by  placing  -ed  after 
the  form  or  forms.  This  -ed  is  to  be  suffixed  to  the  root,  care  being 
taken  to  observe  the  rule  of  spelling  for  derivative  words. 

When  the  -ed  is  in  heavy  type  it  indicates  that  the  -ed  form  is 
preferable. 

The  forms  in  italics  are  either  out  of  use,  seldom  used,  or  not  used 
by  the  best  authors. 

*  Mulligan :  Structure  of  the  English  Language. 


LIST  OF  IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


245 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PAST  PAETIOIPL] 

abide 

abode 

abode 

arise 

arose 

arisen 

awake 

awoke,  -ed 

awaked 

be  or  am 

was 

been 

bear  (to  bring  forth) 

bore,  bare 

born 

bear  (to  carry) 

bore,  bare 

borne 

beat 

beat 

beaten,  beat 

begin 

began 

begun 

behold 

beheld 

beheld 

belay 

belaid,  -ed 

belaid,  -ed 

bend 

bent,  -ed 

bent,  -ed 

bet 

bet,  -ed 

bet,  -ed 

bereave 

bereft 

bereft,  -ed 

beseech 

besought 

besought 

bid 

bid,  bade 

bidden,  bid 

bind 

bound 

bound 

bite 

bit 

bitten,  bit 

bleed 

bled 

bled 

blend 

blent,  -ed 

blent,  -ed 

bless 

blest,  -ed 

blest,  -ed 

blow 

blew 

blown 

break 

broke,  brake 

broken,  broke 

breed 

bred 

bred 

bring 

brought 

brought 

build 

built,  -ed 

built,  -ed 

burn 

burnt,  -ed 

burnt,  -ed 

burst 

burst 

burst 

buy 

bought 

bought 

cast 

cast 

cast 

catch 

caught,  -ed, 

caught,  -ed 

chide 

chid,  chode 

chidden,  chid 

choose 

chose 

chosen 

cleave  (to  adhere) 

cleaved,  clave 

cleaved 

cleave  (to  split) 

clove,  cleft,  clave 

cleft,  cloven 

climb 

climbed,  clorrib 

climbed 

cling 

clung 

clung 

clothe 

clothed,  clad 

clad,  -ed 

come 

came 

come 

cost 

cost 

cost 

creep 

crept 

crept 

246 


A  PPEXDIX. 


PRESENT. 

PAST. 

PAST  PARTICIPLE. 

crow 

crew,  -ed 

crowed 

cut 

cut 

cut 

clare  (to  venture) 

durst,  -ed 

dared 

deal 

dealt,  -ed 

dealt,  -ed 

dig 

dug,  -ed 

dug,  -ed 

do 

did 

done 

draw 

drew 

drawn 

dream 

dreamt,  -ed 

dreamt,  -cd 

dress 

clrest,  -ed 

drest,  -ed 

drink 

drank,  drunk 

drunk,  drunken 

drive 

drove 

driven 

dwell 

dwelt,  -ed 

dwelt,  -ed 

eat 

ate,  eat 

eaten,  eat 

fall 

fell 

fallen 

feed 

fed 

fed 

feel 

felt 

felt 

fight 

fought 

fought 

find 

found 

found 

flee 

fled 

fled 

fling- 

flung 

flung 

fly 

flew 

flown 

forbear 

forbore 

forborne 

forget 

forgot 

forgotten,  forgot 

forsake 

forsook 

forsaken 

freeze 

froze 

frozen 

get 

got 

got,  gotten 

gild 

gilt,  -ed 

gilt,  -cd 

gird 

girt,  -ed 

girt,  -ed 

give 

gave 

given 

go 

went 

gone 

grave 

graved 

graven,  -ed 

grind 

ground 

ground 

grow 

grew 

grown 

hang* 

hung 

hung 

have 

had 

bad 

hear 

heard 

heard 

heave 

hove,  -ed 

hoven,  -ed 

hew 

hewed 

hewn,  -ed 

*  Hang,  to  take  life  by  hanging,  is  regular. 


LIST  OF  IRREGULAR    VERBS. 


247 


PRESENT, 

PAST. 

PAST   PAKTICIPL1 

hide 

hid 

hidden,  hid 

hit 

hit 

hit 

hold 

held 

held,  liolden 

hurt 

hurt 

hurt 

keep 

kept 

kept 

kneel 

knelt,  -ed 

knelt,  -ed 

knit 

knit,  -eel 

knit,  -ed 

know 

knew 

known 

lade 

laded 

laded,  laden 

lay 

laid 

laid 

lead 

led 

led 

leap 

leapt,  -ed 

leapt,  -ed 

learn 

learnt,  -ed 

learnt,  -ed 

leave 

left 

left 

lend 

lent 

lent 

let 

let 

let 

lie  (to  recline} 

lay 

lain 

light 

lit,  -ed 

lit,  -ed 

lose 

lost 

lost 

make 

made 

made 

mean 

meant 

meant 

meet 

met 

met 

mow 

mowed 

mown,  -ed 

pass 

past,  -ed 

past,  -ed 

pay 

paid 

paid 

pen  (to  enclose) 

pent,  -ed 

pent,  -ed 

prove 

proved 

proven,  -ed 

put 

put 

put 

quit 

quit,  -ed 

quit,  -ed 

rap 

rapt,  -ed 

rapt,  -ed 

read 

tfiad 

rSad 

rend 

rent 

rent  * 

rid 

rid 

rid 

ride 

rode,  rid 

ridden,  rid 

ring 

rang,  rung 

rung 

rise 

rose 

risen 

rive 

rived 

riven,  -ed 

run 

ran,  run 

run 

saw 

sawed 

sawn,  -ed 

say 

said 

said 

248 


APPENDIX. 


PAST  PARTIOIPLTC. 


see 

seek 

seethe 

sell 

send 

set 

shake 

shape 

shave 

shear 

shed 

shine 

shoe 

shoot 

show 

shred 

shrink 

shut 

sing 

sink 

sit 

slay 

sleep 

slide 

sling 

slink 

slit 

smell 

smite 

sow 

speak 

speed 

spell 

spend 

spill 

spin 

spit 

split 

spoil 

spread 


saw 

seen 

sought 

sought 

sod,  -ed 

sodden,  -ed 

sold 

sold 

sent 

sent 

set 

set 

shook 

shaken 

shaped 

shapen,  -ed 

shaved 

shaven,  -ed 

sheared,  shore 

shorn,  -ed 

shed 

shed 

shone,  -ed 

shone,  -ed 

shod 

shod 

shot 

shot 

showed 

shown,  -ed 

shred 

shred 

shrank,  shrunk 

shrunk,  shrunken 

shut 

shut 

sang,  sung 

sung 

sank,  sunk 

sunk 

sat 

sat 

slew 

slain 

slept 

slept 

slid 

slidden,  slid 

slung,  slang 

slung 

slunk,  slank 

slunk 

slit,  -ed 

slit,  -ed 

smelt,  -ed 

smelt,  -ed 

smote 

smitten,  smit 

sowed 

sown,  -ed 

spoke,  spake 

spoken 

sped,  -ed 

sped,  -ed 

spelt,  -ed 

spelt,  -ed 

spent 

spent 

spilt,  -ed 

spilt,  -ed 

spun,  span 

spun 

spit,  spat 

spit 

split,  -ed 

split,  -ed 

spoilt,  -ed 

spoilt,  -ed 

spread 

spread 

LIST  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


249 


PRESENT. 

PAGT. 

PAST  PARTICIPLE. 

spring 

sprang,  sprung 

sprung 

stand 

stood 

stood 

stave 

stove,  -ed 

stove,  -ed 

stay 

staid,  -ed 

staid,  -ed 

steal 

stole 

stolen 

stick 

stuck 

stuck 

sting 

stung 

stung 

stride 

strode,  at  rid 

stridden 

strike 

struck 

struck,  stricken 

string 

strung 

strung 

strive 

strove 

striven 

strow,  strew 

strowed,  strewed 

strown,  strewn 

swear 

swore,  sware 

sworn 

sweat 

sweat,  -ed 

sweat,  -ed 

sweep 

swept 

swept 

swell 

swelled 

swollen,  -ed 

swim 

swam,  swum 

swum 

swing 

swung 

swung 

take 

took 

taken 

teach 

taught 

taught 

tear 

tore,  tare 

torn 

tell 

told 

told 

think 

thought 

thought 

thrive 

throve,  -ed 

thriven,  -ed 

throw 

threw 

thrown 

thrust 

tli  rust 

thrust 

tread 

trod 

trodden,  trod 

•wake 

woke,  -cd 

woke,  -ed 

wax 

waxed 

waxen,  -ed 

wear 

wore 

worn 

weave 

WTOVC 

woven 

wed 

wed,  -ed 

wed,  -ed 

weep 

wept 

wept 

wet 

wet,  -ed 

wet,  -ed 

whet 

whet,  -ed 

whet,  -ed 

win 

won 

won 

wind 

wound,  -ed 

wound 

work 

wrought,  -ed 

wrought,  -ed 

wring 

wrung 

wrung 

write 

wrote,  writ 

written 

L2 

250  APPENDIX. 


III.  NOTES   ON  THE  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 

1.  The  definition  usually  given  of  irregular  verbs  is  founded  on  a 
negation — they  do  not  form  their  past  and  past  participle  by  the  ad- 
dition of  -ed  to  the  root.     But  this  class  of  verbs  has  also  a  positive 
characteristic :  all  verbs  properly  called  irregular  form  (or  once  formed) 
their  past  tense  by  a  modification  of  the  root- vowel:  as,  write,  icrote; 
hold,  held;  do,  did.     Moreover,  the  past  participle  of  all  verbs  of  this 
class  was  originally  formed  by  the  addition  of  the  suffix  -en :  as,  give, 
giv-en;    took,  tak-en  —  though  this  inflection  has  now  vanished  from 
many  verbs. 

2.  Disguised  Regulars. — For  ordinary  purposes,  and  for  parsing, 
the  common  classification  of  verbs  as  regular  or  irregular,  according  as 
they  do  or  do  not  form  their  past  and  past  participle  by  adding  -ed,  is 
sufficient ;  but  the  classification  is  in  some  respects  superficial.     For  if 
we  consider  as  not  regular  all  verbs  that  do  not  form  their  past  and 
past  participle  by  the  addition  of  -ed,  a  considerable  number  of  verbs 
will  be  thrown  out  of  the  class  of  verbs  "regular"  which  are  not  to 
be  classified  as  "  irregular  verbs,"  taking  as  the  test  of  irregularity  the 
distinguishing  marks  given  above :  as,  bless,  Nest;  build,  built. 

Verbs  of  this  kind,  though  usually  classed  as  irregular,  belong  strictly 
speaking  to  the  class  of  regular  verbs,  since  the  irregularities  they  pre- 
sent are  merely  a  matter  of  euphony.  These  may  be  called  disguised 
regulars*  And  among  them  we  note  the  following  varieties : 

(1.)  In  some  verbs  in  wThich  -ed  makes  no  additional  syllable,  -t  is 
substituted  for  -ed,  especially  in  the  past  participle.  This  occurs 'in 
the  following  cases : 

(a)  When  -cd  is  sounded  like  t:  as,  "bless,  blessed  (pronounced  blest); 
past  participle,  blest. 

(b)  After  n  or  I:  as,  learn,  (learned)  learnt;  dwell,  dwelt. 

(2.)  In  some  verbs  whose  root  ends  in  d,  preceded  by  I,  n,  or  r, 
the  final  -d  is  simply  changed  to  -t :  as,  build,  (builded)  built;  send, 
sent. 

(3.)  Some  verbs  shorten  the  root  vowel  and  add  -d  or  -t :  as,  flee, 
fled;  feel,/^. 


*  It  may  be  a  useful  distinction,  in  speaking  of  verbs  irregular  in  the  ordi- 
nary sense,  to  designate  them  by  a  name  adopted  by  many  modern  gramma- 
rians, namely,  verbs  of  the  old,  or  strong,  conjugation,  and  to  call  verbs  of  the 
-ed  class  verbs  of  the  new,  or  weak,  conjugation. 


NOTES  ON  THE  IRREGULAR  VERBS.         251 

(4).  Some  verbs  ending  in  d  or  t  shorten  the  root  vowel,  but  take  no 
addition:  as,  feed,  fed;  lead,  fed.* 

(5.)  Some  verbs  ending  in  d  or  t  make  no  change  whatever;  as,  cut, 
cut,  cut. 

Some  verbs,  such  as — 

leave,  left;  buy,  bouyht ; 

lose,  lost ;  sell,  sold  ; 

teach ,  taught ;  tell,  told  ; 

and  others  of  the  like  sort,  though  presenting  marked  departures  from 
the  type  of  the  so-called  regular  verb,  nevertheless  belong  originally  to 
that  conjugation,  for  the  reason  that  the  -ed  inflection  is-,  substantially, 
found  in  them. 

3.  Strictly  Irregular. — Verbs  belonging,  in  the  strict  sense,  to  the 
irregular,  old,  or  strong  conjugation,  have,  in  the  text,  been  subdivided 
into  the  following  classes : 

CLASS  1.— Root-vowel  modified  for  past,  and  -en  or  -n  added  for  participle  : 
as— 

break  broke  broken 

CLASS  2. — Root-vowel  modified  for  past,  and  no  suffix  in  participle :  as — 
begin  began  begun 

CLASS  3.— Regular  in  past ;  irregular  in  participle :  as — 

show  showed  shown 

4.  Go  —  went  —  gone.  —  The  past  went  is  not  formed  from  the  root 
go,  but  is  a  contraction  of  wended,  the  past  tense  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
verb  wendan,  to  wend  or  go :  thus,  "  He  went  his  way"=He  wended  his 
way. 

5.  Hare — had — had. — The  past  had  is  a  contraction  of  the  Anglo- 
Saxon  haefde  or  haefed  (past  tense  of  hdbban,  to  have),  and  hence  is 
equivalent  to  Jiaved;  accordingly,  this  verb  belongs  properly  to  the 
regular,  or  weak,  conjugation. 

G.  Make — made— made. — Made  is  a  contraction  of  the  Anglo-Saxon 
macode  (=maked),  and  the  past  participle  is  a  contracted  form  of  ge- 
macod  ;  so  that  "make"  is  originally  a  regular  verb. 

7.  Double  forms.— In  the  list  on  pages  245-249  will  be  found  a  con- 
siderable number  of  verbs  of  double  form  (redundant  verbs),  that  is, 

•"•  Forms  like  lead,  led  are  accounted  for  as  follows :  The  Anglo-Saxon  verb 
was  Icede  (I  lead),  ledtfc  (I  led).  As  the  Anglo-Saxon  passed  into  modern  Eng- 
lish the  final  e  ceased  to  be  pronounced,  and  with  it  the  additional  d  disap- 
peared as  useless.— Bain:  English  Grammar. 


252  APPENDIX. 

verbs  that  make  their  past  and  participle  both  regularly  and  irregu- 
larly: as — • 

thrive,  thrived,  or  throve,  thrived,  or  thriven; 

dig,  digged,  or  dug,  digged,  or  dug. 

Of  such  pairs  the  irregular  form  is  the  older ;  but  in  the  progress  of 
language  there  is  a  constant  tendency  for  the  regular  to  displace  the 
irregular  form.  Many  verbs  that  are  now  conjugated  solely  in  the 
regular  way  were  at  first  irregular;  then  a  secondary  (regular)  form 
appeared ;  and  this  at  last  wholly  displaced  the  irregular  form.  Thus 
the  now  regular  verb  to  heat  had  formerly  het  for  its  past  tense ;  and 
to  clothe  had  clad  for  its  past  tense,  and  yclad  for  its  past  participle. 

New  verbs  introduced  into  our  language  are  always  conjugated  in 
the  regular  manner :  as,  telegraph,  telegraphed,  telegraphed. 

8.  Drank  or  drunk,  etc. — A  considerable  number  of  verbs  with 
two  irregular  forms  of  the  past  are  found.  The  present  tendency  of 
the  language  is  to  give  the  preference  to  the  forms  drank,  sprang,  began, 
etc.,  for  the  past,  and  use  drunk,  sprung,  begun,  etc.,  solely  as  past  par- 
ticiples. 


ORIGIN  OF  THE  INFINITIVE   WITH  "TO." 

To  is  not  found  in  Anglo-Saxon  before  the  nominative  and  accusa- 
tive of  the  infinitive,  and  even  in  modern  English  it  is  not  inserted 
after  the  following  verbs  :  may,  can,  shall,  will,  dare,  let,  bid,  make,  must, 
see,  hear,  feel,  do,  need,  and  have.  The  cause  of  its  later  appearance  may 
be  thus  explained.  In  Anglo  -  Saxon  the  infinitive  was  declined  as 

follows : 

Nominative  and  accusative,  writ-an,  to  write. 

Dative,  to  writ-ann-e,  for  writing. 

When;  in  later  times,  the  inflectional  endings  were  lost,  the  origin 
of  the  separate  forms  write  and  to  write  was  forgotten,  and  the  prepo- 
sition was  inaccurately  applied  to  all  cases  of  the  infinitive.  The  da- 
tive to  writ-ann-e,  by  the  omission  of  the  case-ending,  appears  as  to 
writ-an,  and  the  nominative  and  accusative  writ-an,  in  consequence  of 
this  accidental  resemblance,  improperly  received  the  preposition  to. 

The  nominative  and  accusative  writ-an  afterwards  assumed  the 
forms  writ-en,  writ-in,  and  finally  writ-ing,  and  thus  arose  the  form 
called  the  gerund.  Hence  the  identity  of  meaning  in  writing  and  to 
write. 


INDEX. 


The  numbers  indicate  the  pages.] 


"A,"  article,  origin  of,  36;  or  "an," 
use  of,  36,  37. 

Abbreviated  parsing,  method  of,  127- 
129. 

Absolute  construction,  rule  for,  141. 

Abstract  noun,  definition  of,  8. 

"  A-building,"  explanation  of,  77. 

"  Adieu,"  etymology  of,  196. 

Adjective,  definition  of,  35;  etymology 
of  word,  35;  function,  35;  limiting, 
definition  of,  36;  numeral,  39;  pro- 
nominal, 37-39;  syntax  of  pronomi- 
nal, 154;  qualifying,  40;  proper,  40; 
participial,  40;  comparison  of,  41; 
parsing  of,  113;  uses  of,  113-117;  as 
complement,  170,  173;  syntax  of, 
153;  misuse  of,  for  adverb,  157. 

Adjuncts,  definition  of,  205;  of  subject, 
213,  214. 

Adverb,  definition  of,  85 ;  office  of,  81 ; 
classification  of,  81 ;  conjunctive,  85 ; 
modal,  86;  derivation  of,  from  pro- 
nouns, 88;  uses  of,  123;  parsing  of, 
123;  syntax  of,  175;  position  of,  175, 
176;  misuse  of,  for  adjective,  177. 

Adverbial-objective,  syntax  of,  178 ;  re- 
lation, 137, 141. 

'A  hundred,"  explanation  of,  158. 
'Alas,"  etymology  of,  196. 
'All,"  use  of,  150. 
'  Alms,"  number  of,  240 
'Amen,"  etymology  of,  196 
'Amends,"  number  of,  13. 
'Among,"  use  of,  188. 

Analysis,  definition  of,  204;  distin- 
guished from  syntax,  139;  of  simple 
sentence,  216;  written  models  of,  220- 
228;  of  complex  sentence,  223-229; 
of  compound  sentence,  231. 

Anglo-Saxon  declension  of  noun,  240; 
of  pronouns,  241,  242 


"An  historical  work,"  37,  note. 
"Annals,"  number  of,  13. 
Antecedent,  definition  of,  31. 
"Any,"  etymology  of,  37,  note;  use  of, 

Apposition,  definition  of,  103. 

Appositives,  syntax  of,  163. 

Articles,  36;  definite,  36;  indefinite, 
36 ;  syntax  of,  155, 156. 

"  As,"  use  of,  marking  apposition,  164 ; 
as  a  relative,  186. 

"Ask  and  teach,"  construction  of,  170. 

Attributive,  explanation  of  relation, 
113, 114;  nature  of,  137;  rules  of  syn- 
tax for,  140. 

Auxiliary  verbs,  definition  of,  50;  con- 
jugation of,  67-71. 

'  Best,"  etymology  of,  43. 
'Better,"  etymology  of,  43. 
'  Between,"  use  of,  188. 
'Brethren,"  formation  of  plural  in, 

237. 

'Bridegroom,"  etymology  of,  239, 
'But,"  use  of,  as  a  relative,  186;  as  a 

preposition,  189. 

"Can,"  conjugation  of,  70. 

Case,  definition  of, 20;  nominative,  20; 
possessive,  20;  objective,  20;  histor- 
ical notes  on,  239,  240. 

Causative  verbs,  50,  note. 

"Children,"  formation  of  plural  in, 
237. 

Clause,  definition  of,  207;  kinds  of,  224; 
connectives  of,  224. 


noun,  syntactical  rule  for, 


Cognative  objective,  51. 
Collective  noun,  svntacti 

149. 

Common  gender,  16. 
Common  nouu  defined,  7. 


254: 


INDEX. 


Comparison  of  adjectives  defined,  41 ; 
comparative,  41 ;  superlative,  42;  for- 
mation of  degrees,  42, 43 ;  irregular, 
43;  adjectives  incapable  of,  44;  in  ad- 
verbs, 87. 

Complement,  definition  of,  49;  of  tran- 
sitive verb,  49,  212;  of  intransitive 
verb,  49, 172,  213 ;  of  infinitives,  173 ; 
of  participles,  173. 

Complementary  relation,  137;  rules  of 
syntax  for,  140. 

Complex  sentence,  211. 

Compound  sentence,  nature  and  analy- 
sis of,  231-233. 

Conjugation,  definition  of,  66 ;  regular, 
66;  irregular,  66;  styles  (forms)  of 
progressive,  75, 76 ;  emphatic,  78;  in- 
terrogative, 78,  79;  negative,  79. 

Conjunction,  definition  of,  93 ;  classifi- 
cation of,  93 ;  uses  of,  125 ;  syntax  of, 
189-192 ;  correlative,  191. 

Conjunctive  adverb,  85. 

Connective  relation,  137;  rules  of  syn- 
tax for,  141. 

Connectives,  definition  of,  207. 

Co-ordinate  conjunction,  definition  of, 
93. 

u  Conscience'  sake,"  use  of  apostrophe 
in,  21. 

Constructions,  regular,  138;  irregular, 
138. 

"  Could,"  origin  of,  70,  note. 

Declarative  sentence,  210. 

Declension,  of  noun,  21,  22;  of  pro- 
noun, 29. 

Defective  verb,  79. 

Demonstrative  adjective  and  pronoun, 
38. 

Distributive,  adjective  and  pronoun,  38. 

"Do"  (auxiliary),  conjugation  of,  69;  in 
u  How  do  you  do  ?' '  origin  of,  69,  note. 

"  Doctress,"  19. 

44  Drank"  or  "drunk,"  distinction  be- 
tween, 252. 

"During,"  explanation  of,  93. 

"Each  other,"  explanation  of,  164. 

"  Each,"  syntax  of,  155. 

"  Eaves,"  number  of,  238. 

"  -Ed,"  origin  of,  in  verbs,  58,  note. 

"Editress,"  19. 

"Either"  (pro.),  possessive  use  of,  39; 

(conjunction),  misuse  of,  155. 
"  Elder,"  "  eldest,"  use  of,  44. 
Element,  principal,  205;  subordinate, 

205;    independent,  206;    degree  of, 

208;  substantive,  208;  adjective,  208; 

adverbial,  208. 


Ellipsis,  definition  of,  138. 
"-Es,"  origin  of  plural  sign,  237. 
Etymology,  definition  of,  3. 
"Every,"  syntax  of,  155. 
"Except,"  origin  of,  92. 
Exclamative  sentence,  210. 

Feminine  gender,  16. 
"First  two,"  use  of,  158. 
Forms  in  -ing,  notes  on,  62-64. 
"Further"  and  "farther,"  distinction 
between,  44. 

"  Gallows,"  number  of,  13. 

"  Gander,"  etymology  of,  239. 

Gender,  definition  of,  16;  masculine, 
16;  feminine,  16;  neuter,  16;  how 
marked,  17;  natural  and  grammati- 
cal,!^; use  of,  17;  suffix -ess,  18,19; 
feminine  innovations,  19. 

Genders,  different,  use  of  pronoun  to 
represent,  184;  philological  notes 
on,  238,  239. 

Gerund,  the,  52,  53 ;  use  of,  62;  origin 
of,  63,  note  ;  compound,  62;  tests  of, 
63;  uses  of,  121 ;  modification  of,  by 
possessive,  162 ;  syntax  of,  197. 

"Good-bye,"  etymology  of,  196. 

Grammar,  definition  of,  1 ;  English, 
divisions  of,  2. 

Grammatical  forms,  definition  of,  3 ; 
how  denoted,  4;  explanation  of,  5; 
of  noun,  11-23;  of  pronoun,  29;  of 
verb,  53,  54. 

Idiom,  definition  of,  138. 

Imperative  mood,  definition  of,  57 ; 
tenses  of,  61 ;  person  in,  65. 

Imperative  sentence,  210. 

Indefinites,  adjective  and  pronoun,  38. 

Indicative  mood,  tenses  of,  57,  58. 

Infinitive,  definition  of,  52;  forms  of, 
52;  in-ing,52,62,63,«ote;  compound, 
62;  uses  of,  121;  parsing  of,  121;  syn- 
tax of,  197;  absolute,  197. 

Inflection,  definition  of,  4. 

Interjection,  definition  of,  95;  parsing 
of,  126;  rule  of  syntax  for,  141, 196. 

Interrogative  sentence,  210. 

Intransitive  verb,  definition  of,  49 ; 
complement  of,  172. 

Irregular  verb,  definition  of,  66;  con- 
ir,,roti  5-  classification  of,  80; 


jugatic 
list  of, 


list  of,  246-251. 
"Is  being,"  remarks  on,  77. 
"Is  building"    (passive),  explanation 

of,  77. 
"It,"  use  of,  as  anticipative  subject, 

144. 


INDEX. 


255 


ults,"  origin  of,  343. 

Language,  definition  of,  1. 
''Last,"  etymology  of,  44. 
'"Like,"  misuse  of,  for  as,  158. 

"Many  a,"  explanation  of,  158. 

Masculine  gender,  16. 

"Methinks,"  explanation  of,  80. 

Modal  adverb,  80. 

Mode  (see  Mood). 

Mood,  definition  of,  55 ;  number  of 
moods,  55;  indicative,  55;  potential, 
56;  subjunctive,  56;  imperative,  57; 
use  of,  198. 

Negatives,  use  of  two,  178. 

"Neither,"  syntax  of,  155. 

Neuter  gender,  16. 

"  News,"  number  of,  13. 

"No,"  as  responsive,  175. 

Nominative  case,  definition  of.  20;  in- 
dependent, 104,  141,  194;  absolute, 
104, 194. 

"  None,"  construction  of,  150. 

* '  Notwithstand ing, ' '  explanation  of,  92. 

Noun,  the,  definition  of,  6;  tests  of,  6; 
logical  definition  of,  6;  classification 
of,  7;  proper  and  common  distin- 
guished, 7;  proper,  7, 10;  grammati- 
cal forms  of,  11  ;  abstract,  8,  10  ; 
common,  79 ;  with  plural  only,  13  ; 
declension  of,  21,  22;  person  in,  23; 
in  -ing,  62;  method  of  parsing,  98; 
uses  of,  99-105;  subject  of  verb,  99; 
possessive,  99;  object,  100;  indirect 
object,  101;  in  phrases,  101;  in  ap- 
position, 102 ;  as  predicate  nomina- 
tive, 103;  independent  and  absolute, 
1J4 ;  objective  adverbial,  105 ;  equiv- 
alents of,  in  analysis,  212. 

Number,  in  nouns,  11-13 ;  peculiarities 
of,  13 ;  definition  of,  in  verbs,  64 ; 
notes,on,  in  nouns,  237. 

Numeral  adjective,  39;  cardinal,  39; 
ordinal,  40. 

Object,  definition  of,  49;  of  preposition, 
90;  government  of,  by  transitive  verb, 
166 ;  by  verbals,  166 ;  direct  and  in- 
direct government  of,  168;  as  com- 
plement of  passive  verb,  169 ;  double 
after  some  verbs,  169 ;  use  of,  after 
passive  verbs,  171. 

Objective  adverbial,  105, 178. 

Objective  case,  definition  of,  20;  cog- 
nate, 51 ;  use  of,  denoting  time,  dis- 
tance, value,  etc.,  105,  178;  govern- 
ment of,  by  preposition,  187, 188. 


'Odds,"  number  of,  13. 

*  O  dear !"  etymology  of,  196. 

'O"  and  "oh  "  distinction  between, 

196. 

'One  another,"  explanation  of,  164. 
'Only,"  use  of,  177. 
'Other,"  declension  of,  39. 
'Oxen,"  formation  of  plural  in,  237. 

"  Pains,"  number  of,  13. 

Paradigm  "to  love,"  71-74. 

Parsing,  of  nouns,  98-105;  of  pronouns, 
method  of,  109,  110;  of  verbs,  118; 
of  adjectives,  113-117 ;  of  infinitives, 
121 ;  of  participles,  122 ;  of  adverbs, 
123;  of  prepositions,  125;  of  interjec- 
tions, 126 ;  of  conjunctions,  126 ;  ab- 
breviated, method  of,  127-129. 

Participle,  definition  of,  53;  sirnple,53; 
compound  or  perfect,  62 ;  in  -ing,  63 ; 
uses  of,  122;  syntactical  rule  for,  153; 
syntax  of,  198. 

Parts  of  speech,  definition  and  enume- 
ration of,  3. 

Parts,  principal,  of  verb,  66. 

Person,  in  nouns,  23;  in  pronouns,  28, 
29;  in  verbs,  64. 

Personal  pronouns,  28,  29. 

Phrase,  definition  of,  207 ;  preposi- 
tional, 207;  participial,  207. 

Pleonasm  defined,  139. 

Plural,  of  nouns,  11;  foreign,  13;  double 
forms,  13 ;  Latin,  13, 14 ;  Greek,  14. 

Possessive  case,  20;  rules  for,  21;  syn- 
tax of,  160;  special  rules  for  use 'of, 
161,162;  origin  of 's,  240. 

Potential  mood,  56,  59,  60. 

Predicate  nominative,  syntax  of,  172. 

Predicate,  definition  of,  205;  grammat- 
ical, 206;  logical,  206;  adjuncts  of, 
214,  215 ;  "to,"  meaning  of,  48. 

Predicative  relation,  116,  117;  adjec- 
tives in,  137;  rule  of  syntax  for, 

Preposition,  definition  of,  89;  govern- 
ment of,  89;  function  of,  89;  list  of, 
90-92;  use  of,  124;  parsing  of,  125; 
syntax  of,  187, 188. 

Principal  parts,  enumeration  of,  66. 

Progressive  form,  75,  76. 

Progressive  passive,  notes  on,  77. 

Pronominal  adjectives,  37-39. 

Pronoun,  definition  of,  28;  classifica- 
tion of,  28 ;  personal,  28 ;  relative, 
29;  declension,  29;  compound,  30; 
(adjective),  use  of,  165;  uses  of,  108, 
109;  (relative),  use  of,  109;  case  of, 
179 ;  syntax  of,  179. 

Pronouns  (personal),  order  of  arrange- 


256 


INDEX. 


ment  of,  182;   violations  of  syntax 

in  use  of,  183, 184. 
Proper  names,  plural  of,  15. 
Proposition,  definition  of,  207. 

Qualifying  adjectives,  definition  of,  40; 
office  of,  35. 

Radical  change,  definition  of,  4. 

Redundant  verb,  80. 

Reflective  verb,  51. 

Regular  verb,  definition  of,  66. 

Relative  pronoun,  definition  of,  31 ;  use 

of,  109. 

"Riches,"  number  of,  238. 
Root- infinitive,  definition  of,  53. 
Representative  relation,  137, 141, 179. 
Responsives,  87. 
Rules  of  syntax,  140. 

'  S,  use  of,  21 ;  origin  of,  240. 

"Save"  (prep.),  origin  of,  92. 

Sentence,  defined,  204;  declarative, 
210;  interrogative,  210 ;  imperative, 
210;  exclamative,  210;  simple,  defini- 
tion of,  211;  analysis  of,  216-220; 
complex,  definition  of,  211;  com- 
pound, 211 ;  complex,  analysis  of, 
223;  theory  of,  223. 

"Shall"  and  "will,"  use  of,  199. 

Sheep,  plural  of,  12. 

Simple  sentence,  definition  of,  211 ; 
analysis  of,  216 ;  oral  models  for, 
218-220. 

"Songstress,"  etymology  of,  238. 

"Spinster,"  gender  of,  238. 

"-Ster,"  explanation  of  suffix,  238. 

Subject  of  a  verb,  rule,  142;  special 
rules,  143,  144;  violations  of  rule, 
143;  improper  use  of  double,  151; 
definition  of,  205 ;  grammatical,  205; 
logical,  206  ;  adjuncts  of,  213,  214. 

Subjective  relation,  137, 140. 

Subjunctive  mood,  56,  60 ;  syntax  of, 
198. 

Subordinate  conjunction,  definition  of, 
94. 

Substantive,  6. 

Suffix  -ess,  18. 

Superlative  degree,  use  of;  156. 

Syntax,  definition  of,  137;  distinguish- 
*ed  from  analysis,  139;  rules  of,  140. 

"Teach"  and  "ask,"  construction  of, 

170. 
Tense,  definition  of,  57;   rules  for  use 

of,  200. 


"Than,"  use  of,  193. 

"Thanks,"  number  of,  13. 

"  Than  whom,"  use  of,  193. 

"  That "  (relative),  use  of,  181, 182 ;  po- 
sition of  governing  preposition,  185; 
(conjunction),  use  of,  192. 

"The"  in  "The  more  the  merrier," 
explanation  of,  88, 158. 

"  There,"  pronominal  use  of,  144. 

"  Tidings,"  number  of,  13. 

"To  be,"  conjugation  of,  67,  68; 
sources  of  parts  of,  67,  note. 

"To  love,"  conjugation  of,  71-74. 

"To,"  omission  of,  before  infinitive, 
197;  origin  of,  with  infinitive,  254. 

Transitive  verb,  48, 166. 

"  'Itvo  first,"  use  of,  159. 

Unipersonal  verb,  79. 

Verb,  definition  of,  48 ;  distinguishing 
marks  of,  48;  transitive,  48 ;  intran- 
sitive, 48;  double  use  of  as  transi- 
tive and  intransitive,  50;  reflexive, 
51;  defective,  79;  unipersonal,  79; 
redundant,  80;  method  of  parsing, 
118;  agreement  of,  145;  violations  of 
rule,  146, 147;  special  rules,  147-150; 
notes  on  paradigm,  244-246;  list  of 
irregular,  244-249. 

Verbal  noun,  10. 

Verbals,  definition  of,  52. 

"Vixen,"  etymology  of,  238. 

Voice,  definition  of,  54 ;  active,  54 ;  pas- 
sive, 54,  55. 

"Wages,"  number  of,  13. 

"Wages  of  sin  is  death,"  explanation 
of  construction,  150. 

"Waitress,"  19. 

"Went,"  origin  of,  251. 

"Wert,"use  of,  67,  note. 

"  What,"  mode  of  parsing  of,  109 ;  ori- 
gin of,  109,  note. 

"Which,"  declension  of,  32;  use  of, 
181, 185. 

"Who,"  declension  of,  32;  use  of,  181. 

"Whose,"  use  of,  for  neuter,  185. 

"Widower,"  how  formed,  239. 

"Word,"  definition  of,  1. 

"Whosoever,"  declension  of,  32. 

"Why,"  origin  of,  244. 

"Worse,"  etymology  of,  44. 

"Worst,"  etymology  of,  44. 

"Yes,"  175. 

"  You,"  use  of,  31 ;  for  singular,  65. 


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